21. Restrizione del cumulo di cariche. 

Infine altre cagioni ragguardevolissime di una crescente limitazione e ripartizione dell'autorità dei magistrati si vogliono riconoscere nel divieto (412 = 342) di cumulare in un solo individuo l'esercizio di più cariche curuli ordinarie, e nel contemporaneo provvedimento che inibiva, nei casi ordinari, allo stesso cittadino di esercitare di nuovo un ufficio, già da lui coperto, prima che fosse decorso un decennio, e, infine, nella posteriore disposizione per cui la censura, divenuta di fatto il primo ufficio della repubblica, non poteva essere amministrata per la seconda volta dallo stesso cittadino (489 = 265).

Nondimeno, perchè il governo si sentiva ancora tanto forte da non aver affatto a temere dagli uomini di cui si serviva, e da poter valersi, senza gelosia alcuna, anche dei più abili, occorreva spesso che valorosi ufficiali venissero prosciolti da quelle limitazioni[4]: e in questi tempi si vedono dei casi, come quello di Quinto Fabio Rulliano, che non contando più di ventotto anni di età era già stato nominato console cinque volte, e quello di Marco Valerio Corvo (384-483 = 370-271), che dopo aver amministrati sei consolati, il primo all'età di anni ventitrè, l'ultimo di anni settantadue, e dopo essere stato per tre generazioni il presidio dei contadini e lo spavento dei nemici, morì centenne.

Mentre dunque la magistratura romana per un processo che si faceva sempre più aspro e sempre più decisivo, passava dal grado d'assoluta signoria a quello di una commissione di determinate faccende comunali, l'antica contro-magistratura, il tribunato popolare, veniva nello stesso tempo e nello stesso modo soccombendo ad una trasformazione piuttosto intima e sostanziale che visibile ed esteriore.

Ciò riusciva comodo alla repubblica per un doppio scopo. Si era trovato sulle prime, e accettato, questo singolar modo di proteggere il povero e l'inerme con un'assistenza legalmente rivoluzionaria (auxilium) contro l'ultrapotenza dei magistrati; lo stesso rimedio fu poscia applicato a toglier di mezzo la disuguaglianza di diritto fra i cittadini ed abolire i privilegi delle famiglie patrizie. Quest'ultima applicazione ebbe felice successo. L'originario scopo del tribunato però era, se si considera in se stesso, piuttosto una idealità democratica che una politica possibilità; ma nella pratica era tanto odioso all'aristocrazia plebea, nelle cui mani doveva pervenire, come era infatti pervenuto, l'esercizio di questo potere, e tanto incompatibile ai nuovi ordini del comune, nati dal legale livellamento dei ceti, e già inclini, forse più che in antico, all'aristocrazia, quanto era stato odioso da principio alla libertà originaria, e quanto era riuscito inconciliabile coll'antica costituzione consolare e patrizia. Ma invece di sopprimere il tribunato si preferì convertirlo da una macchina di opposizione ad un organo di governo, associando all'esercizio del potere i tribuni del popolo, i quali in origine erano sempre stati esclusi da ogni partecipazione all'amministrazione, e non erano nè magistrati nè membri del senato. Se fino da principio essi erano eguali ai consoli nella giurisdizione, e se fin dalle prime fasi della lotta tra le due classi opposte, essi, come i consoli, si arrogarono l'iniziativa legislativa, essi ottennero in quest'altro periodo storico, e, sebbene non possa accertarsene l'anno, verosimilmente nel momento stesso che si concepì l'uguaglianza dei ceti, o poco appresso, una posizione pari a quella dei consoli di fronte alla vera autorità governativa, che era il senato.

Fino allora essi avevano assistito ai dibattimenti del senato sedendo su uno sgabello posto sull'uscio; ora essi ottennero di sedere nel senato stesso accanto agli altri pubblici ufficiali ed il diritto di prendere la parola nei dibattimenti. Se rimase loro interdetto il diritto di votare, non era questa se non un'applicazione della massima fondamentale della ragione di stato dei Romani, in forza della quale davano il voto soltanto coloro che non erano incaricati del potere esecutivo, e quindi tutti i funzionari pubblici avevano bensì seggio, ma non potevano aver voce deliberativa al consiglio di stato durante l'anno delle loro funzioni.

Ma le cose non rimasero nemmeno in questi termini. I tribuni ottennero il caratteristico privilegio che spettava ai supremi magistrati e che nella classe degli ufficiali ordinari era concesso esclusivamente ai consoli ed ai pretori: il diritto cioè di adunare il senato, di interpellarlo e di provocarne una deliberazione[5].

E questo era ben naturale: i capi dell'aristocrazia plebea dovevano esser posti in senato a pari dei capi della aristocrazia patrizia dacchè il regime era passato dalla nobiltà d'origine all'aristocrazia unita.

Ma mentre questo collegio dell'opposizione, originariamente escluso da ogni ingerenza negli affari amministrativi, era in quel tempo divenuto, precipuamente per gli affari propriamente urbani, una seconda suprema magistratura esecutiva ed uno dei più consueti ed idonei organi del governo, vale a dire del senato, onde dirigere i cittadini, e anzitutto per impedire i trascorsi dei magistrati, esso fu, per quel che riguarda il suo scopo particolare ed originario, assorbito e praticamente distrutto.

Questo provvedimento era imposto dalla necessità. Per quanto evidenti si mostrassero i vizi dell'ordinamento aristocratico, per quanto crescessero insieme, da una parte la prepotenza delle classi elevate, dall'altra la deviazione del tribunato dal suo antico scopo, era impossibile che non si fosse avvertita l'impossibilità di reggere lungamente il governo di fronte ad un'autorità che non mirava ad un risultato definitivo, e solo si limitava a tener a bada con fallaci promesse gli angariati proletari, e che nel tempo stesso era sostanzialmente sovversiva e armata d'un vero potere anarchico, come quella che poteva paralizzare l'autorità dei magistrati, anzi tutta la forza dello stato.

Ma la fede nell'ideale, da cui ha origine tutta la potenza e tutta l'impotenza della democrazia, si era negli animi dei Romani interamente incarnata nel tribunato popolare, e non occorre di richiamare alla memoria Cola di Rienzo per riconoscere che, per quanto scarsi fossero i vantaggi che il popolo minuto ritraeva da quella istituzione, essa non avrebbe potuto venire abolita senza una spaventevole rivoluzione. Perciò, con sottile avvedimento civile, studiarono di ridurla all'impotenza, con i mezzi che meno dessero nell'occhio alla moltitudine.

Il nome di questa magistratura, necessariamente sovversiva, rimaneva però sempre, anche dopo questi temperamenti, come una vera contraddizione in una repubblica governata dalle alte classi, e poteva, in processo di tempo, divenire un'arma pericolosa e penetrante in mano di un partito che mirasse a mutare lo stato; ma nei tempi di cui parliamo l'aristocrazia era ancora così forte, e così interamente in possesso del tribunato, che invano si cercherebbe un caso d'opposizione collegiale dei tribuni contro il senato; anzi il governo respinse sempre senza sforzo ogni tentativo d'opposizione fatto da qualche tribuno, e d'ordinario si valse della opposizione dello stesso tribunato.

Storia di Roma
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