IX. Capacità economiche: il vantaggio sprecato
1 Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp. 314, 333 sgg. Cfr. Bairoch, Europe’s Gross National Product, pp. 281 e 303.
2 J.M. Hobson, Military-Extraction Gap, pp. 464-465.
3 Witt, Finanzpolitik und sozialer Wandel im Krieg, p. 425.
4 Wagenführ, Die Industriewirtschaft, p. 23.
5 Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, pp. 186 sgg., 199 sgg., 225 sgg., 290-291; Hardach, First World War, p. 91.
6 Godfrey, Capitalism at War, p. 47; Kemp, French Economy, p. 31n.
7 Burchardt, Impact of the War Economy, p. 45.
8 Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, p. 350.
9 Glaser, American War Effort, p. 22.
10 Wagenführ, Die Industriewirtschaft, p. 23; Hardach, First World War, p. 45.
11 Calcolato da Hoffman, Grumbach e Hesse, Wachstum, pp. 358-359, 383 sgg., 390-393; Wagenführ, Die Industriewirtschaft, pp. 23 sgg.; Feldman, Iron and Steel, pp. 474-475; Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, pp. 141 sgg. L’aumento della produzione vinicola (cosa avvenuta anche in Ungheria e Bulgaria) rappresentava un sostituto d’importazione. La produzione italiana e quella francese diminuirono leggermente.
12 Burchardt, Impact of the War Economy, pp. 42 e 47. Cfr. Berthold, Die Entwicklung.
13 J. Lee, Administrators and Agricolture, pp. 232 sgg.
14 Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, pp. 285-286.
15 J. Lee, Administrators and Agricolture, p. 235.
16 «Hansa», 1º agosto 1914.
17 Offer, First World War, pp. 300-309; Hardach, First World War, pp. 11-19. Cfr. Vincent, Politics of Hunger.
18 Tirpitz, Deutsche Ohnmachtspolitik, p. 68.
19 Hardach, First World War, p. 19.
20 M. Farrar, Preclusive Purchases, pp. 117-133.
21 Hardach, First World War, p. 30.
22 Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War, pp. 41 e 80.
23 Hardach, First World War, p. 124.
24 Liddel Hart, British Way, p. 29. Cfr. Ferguson, Food and the First World War, pp. 188-195.
25 Hardach, First World War, p. 33.
26 Si vedano le varie cifre in Keynes, Economic Consequences, pp. 161 e 165 (stime tedesche prebelliche); «The Economist», Reparations Supplement, 31 maggio 1924 (stime della commissione McKenna); Hoffmann, Grumbach e Hesse, Wachstum, p. 262; Kindleberger, Financial History, p. 225.
27 Bundesarchiv (in precedenza a Potsdam), Reichswirtschafts ministerium, 764/268-301, Verluste der deutschen Handelsflotte.
28 Eichengreen, Golden Fetters, pp. 82 sgg. Per maggiori particolari sulla bilancia tedesca dei pagamenti si veda Bresciani-Turroni, Economics of Inflation, pp. 83-89; su quella britannica, E. Morgan, Studies in British Financial Policy, p. 341.
29 Zunkel, Industrie; Ehlert, Die wirtschaftlichen Zentralbehörde; Feldman, Der deutsche organisierte Kapitalismus, pp. 150-171.
30 Lo studio classico rimane quello di Feldman, Army, Industry and Labour. Per un riecheggiamento si veda W. Fischer, Die deutsche Wirtschaft; Bessel, Mobilising German Society.
31 D. French, British Economic and Strategic Planning, pp. 6-27; Marwick, Deluge, p. 79.
32 Adams, Arms and the Wizard; Wrigley, Ministry of Munitions, pp. 32-56; Beveridge, Power and Influence, p. 117. Cfr. Dewey, New Warfare; Chickering, World War.
33 Hurwitz, State Intervention, p. 62. Cfr. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, p. 327.
34 Reid, Dilution, p. 61.
35 Kemp, French Economy, pp. 28-57; Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 64, 104-105, 289-296.
36 J.M. Winter, Public Health, pp. 170 sgg.
37 J.M. Winter, Great War, pp. 279 sgg., 305.
38 J.M. Winter, Capital Cities, pp. 10-11. Si veda anche Offer, First World War, passim.
39 L. Cecil, Albert Ballin, pp. 212-213.
40 Warburg, Aus meinen Aufzeichnungen, pp. 34-35.
41 Ferguson, Paper and Iron, p. 146.
42 Pogge von Strandmann, Walther Rathenau, p. 189.
43 Ivi, p. 145.
44 Feldman, War Aims, pp. 22-23.
45 Ivi, p. 145.
46 Feldman, Iron and Steel, p. 80.
47 Moeller, Dimensions of Social Conflict, pp. 142-168.
48 Ferguson, Paper and Iron, p. 105.
49 Crow, Man of Push and Go, pp. 69-85.
50 Dewey, New Warfare, pp. 78-79.
51 D. French, Biritsh Economic and Strategic Planning, pp. 11-25; Adams, Arms and the Wizard, pp. 14-69, 83, 90, 164-179; T. Wilson, Myriad Faces, pp. 217-236; Wrigley, Ministry of Munitions, pp. 34-38, 43-49; Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 83-84; Crow, Man of Push and Go, pp. 86-92; Beveridge, Power and Influence, pp. 124 sgg. Cfr. Marwick, Deluge, p. 99. Sulla Russia: Stone, Eastern Front, pp. 196-197. Sulla Francia: Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 45-48, 107, 184-210, 259-260.
52 T. Wilson, Myriad Faces, p. 237; Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 85-89.
53 Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 186, 261-284.
54 McNeill, Pursuit of Power, p. 340.
55 Warburg, Aus meinen Aufzeichnungen, pp. 92 e 100.
56 Hardach, First World War, pp. 58-61; Feldman, Iron and Steel, pp. 67-68; Feldman, Great Disorder, pp. 52 sgg.
57 J. Harris, William Beveridge, p. 235.
58 Kemp, French Economy, p. 45; Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 49-50.
59 Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 197-198.
60 Ivi, pp. 107-122.
61 Boswell e John, Patriots or Profiteers?, pp. 427-433; Alford, Lost Opportunities, pp. 222-223. Cfr. Wrigley, Ministry of Munitions, pp. 42-43.
62 Boswell e John, Patriots or Profiteers?, pp. 435-436; Hurwitz, State Intervention, pp. 174-179. Cfr. G. Holmes, First World War, pp. 212-214.
63 Hurwitz, State Intervention, p. 179.
64 Si veda Rubin, War, Law and Labour.
65 Glaser, American War Effort, p. 16.
66 Stone, Eastern Front, pp. 197-209.
67 Ivi, pp. 210-211.
68 Hardach, First World War, p. 106.
69 Ferguson, Paper and Iron, pp. 105 sgg.
70 Feldman, Iron and Steel, pp. 11-12.
71 Bresciani-Turroni, Economics of Inflation, p. 288.
72 Calcolato da Vierteljahreshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Reiches, Ergänzungsheft II (1914), p. 11; (1915), p. 9; (1916), p. 9; (1917), p. 11; (1918), p. 11; (1920), p. 106.
73 Hardach, First World War, p. 106.
74 Boswell e John, Patriots or Profiteers?, p. 443; Marwick, Deluge, p. 164; G. Holmes, First World War, p. 211; Alford, Lost Opportunities, pp. 210-218.
75 Lyashchenko, History of the National Economy, p. 751. Si veda anche Stone, Eastern Front.
76 Dewey, British Farming Profits, p. 378.
77 Kemp, French Economy, p. 54.
78 F. Graham, Exchange, pp. 307-308; Petzina, Abelshauser e Foust, Sozialgeschichtliches Arbeitsbuch, vol. III, p. 82; Fontaine, French Industry, p. 455.
79 Stone, Eastern Front, pp. 205, 297 sgg.
80 Hurwitz, State Intervention, p. 72; Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War, pp. 24-38.
81 Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 69-74.
82 L. Cecil, Albert Ballin, p. 216; Warburg, Aus meinen Aufzeichnungen, pp. 34-37.
83 Feldman, Iron and Steel, pp. 72-77.
84 Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War, pp. 14-42. Si veda anche Burk, Mobilisation of Anglo-American Finance, pp. 25-42.
85 Hurwitz, State Intervention, p. 173; G. Holmes, First World War, pp. 208 sgg.; Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 72-80, 94-101.
86 Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 65-71.
87 Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War, p. 68; G. Owen, Dollar Diplomacy in Default, pp. 260-264; Crow, Man of Push and Go, pp. 131, 143-147.
88 Bessel, Germany, pp. 5, 73, 79.
89 Ferguson, Paper and Iron, p. 124.
90 Bessel, Mobilising German Society, p. 10.
91 A. Gregory, Lost Generations, p. 71.
92 A. Jackson, Germany, the Home Front, p. 569; Petzina, Abelshauer e Foust, Sozialgeschichtliches Arbeitsbuch, vol. III, p. 27.
93 Henning, Das industrialisierte Deutschland, pp. 34-35.
94 Dewey, Military Recruitment, pp. 204-221; Dewey, New Warfare, p. 75; Hurwitz, State Intervention, p. 135.
95 J. Horne, Labour at War, p. 401; Henning, Das industrialisierte Deutschland, p. 34.
96 Dewey, Military Recruitment, p. 204; Chickering, World War I, p. 13. Cfr. Hurwitz, State Intervention, p. 169; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, p. 326; Marwick, Deluge, p. 96.
97 Adams, Arms and the Wizard, pp. 77, 93-97; Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 113-114, 169; J. Harris, William Beveridge, p. 210.
98 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 135-136.
99 PRO CAB 37/141/38, commissione del gabinetto sul coordinamento dello sforzo militare e finanziario, gennaio 1916.
100 Dewey, Military Recruitment, p. 215.
101 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 171-189. Si veda Waites, Effect, pp. 36-37.
102 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, p. 226; Marwick, Deluge, p. 249; Grieves, Lloyd George.
103 Lowe, Ministry of Labour, pp. 108-134.
104 J.M. Winter, Great War, pp. 43-44.
105 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, p. 228.
106 Leunig, Lancashire, pp. 36-43; Zeitlin, Labour Strategies, pp. 35-40.
107 Greasley e Oxley, Discontinuities, pp. 82-100. Sono grato a Glen O’Hara per questa opinione.
108 A. Gregory, Lost Generations, pp. 83-84.
109 P. Parker, Old Lie, p. 16.
110 Angell, Great Illusion, p. 174.
111 J. Horne, «L’Impôt du sang», pp. 201-223. Cfr. anche Godfrey, Capitalism at War, p. 49; Kemp, French Economy, pp. 38-43; Becker, Les Français.
112 McNeill, Pursuit of Power, p. 312n; Godfrey, Capitalism at War, p. 257.
113 Bieber, Die Entwicklung, pp. 77-153. La minaccia della coscrizione era sfruttata anche dai datori di lavoro britannici: Rubin, War, Law and Labour, pp. 221 e 225.
114 Ullrich, Massenbewegung, pp. 407-418.
115 Hardach, First World War, pp. 63-69, 179-180.
116 Ullrich, Der Januarstreik 1918, pp. 45-74.
117 Manning, Wages, pp. 225-285.
118 Ferguson, Paper and Iron, p. 126. Cfr. Kocka, Klassengesellschaft; Burchardt, Impact of War Economy, pp. 54-55.
119 Si veda in generale Zimmermann, Günther e Meerwarth, Die Einwirkung.
120 Manning, Wages, pp. 276-277.
121 J.M. Winter, Great War, pp. 232 sgg.; Manning, Wages, pp. 261-276. Si veda anche Phillips, Social Impact, pp. 118-119.
122 Oltre alle opere già citate, cfr. Harrison, War Emergency Workers’ Committee; J. Horne, Labour at War.
123 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 119-120; J. Harris, William Beveridge, pp. 208-209; Beveridge, Power and Influence, p. 132. In oltre un quarto dei casi, quando i lavoratori si rivolsero al tribunale di Glasgow per ottenere i certificati che i loro datori di lavoro avevano rifiutato di dare, i datori di lavoro persero la causa: Rubin, War, Law and Labour, p. 203.
124 J.M. Winter, Great War, p. 232.
125 Gerber, Corporatism, pp. 93-127.
126 Ivi, pp. 35, 41-42, 73-76, 110-115, 187-188, 208-211, 235-236; J. Harris, William Beveridge, p. 218; Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 141-142. Cfr. anche Reid, Dilution, pp. 51 e 57.
127 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 122-128; Beveridge, Power and Influence, p. 129; J. Holmes, First World War, p. 213.
128 T. Wilson, Myriad Faces, p. 228.
129 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 155-163; J. Harris, William Beveridge, pp. 219-226. Si veda anche Rubin, War, Law and Labour, pp. 47-48, 96-101, 106-107, 131-132; Reid, Dilution, p. 53. Per molti versi, l’intera questione della manodopera non qualificata fu esagerata. Non furono molte le donne impiegate nell’industria meccanica; la maggior parte finì nel settore dei servizi, per prendere il posto degli impiegati: J.M. Winter, Great War, p. 46.
130 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, p. 147 (frase di Asquith).
131 Beveridge, Power and Influence, p. 129. Cfr. Marwick, Deluge, p. 246.
132 Lowe, Ministry of Labour, p. 116.
133 S. Bailey, Berlin Strike, pp. 158-174.
134 Wrigley, David Lloyd George, p. 137.
135 Ferro, La Grande guerre.
136 Becker, Les Français.
137 Ivi.
138 Burchardt, Impact of the War Economy; Offer, First World War, passim. Cfr. A. Jackson, Germany, the Home Front, pp. 563-576.
139 Witt, Finanzpolitik und sozialer Wandel im Krieg, pp. 424-425; Bry, Wages in Germany, pp. 253, 422-429, 440-445; Holtfrerich, Deutsche Inflation, p. 567.
140 Burchardt, Impact of the War Economy, pp. 41-42; Moeller, Dimensions of Social Conflict, pp. 147-148; A. Jackson, Germany, the Home Front, p. 567.
141 Holtfrerich, Deutsche Inflation, p. 255.
142 Beveridge, Power and Influence, pp. 143-144; D. French, British Economic and Strategic Planning, pp. 19-20; J. Harris, William Beveridge, pp. 234-241; Wrigley, David Lloyd George, pp. 180 e 218; Dewey, British Farming Profits, pp. 373 e 381; Marwick, Deluge, pp. 231-240.
143 Godfrey, Capitalism at War, pp. 61, 66-67, 79, 83-84, 129 sgg.
144 Becker, Les Français.
145 Offer, First World War, p. 33.
146 Blackbourn, Fontana History, p. 475. Cfr. A. Jackson, Germany, the Home Front, p. 575. Per Kraus la cifra è 800.000 e la fonte è un «folle»: Kraus, Die letzten Tage, p. 439. Per una divertente parodia dei nomi dei surrogati, cfr. ivi, pp. 398-399.
147 Offer, First World War, p. 35.
148 Burleigh, Death and Deliverance, p. 11.
149 Offer, First World War, pp. 32-33, 155.
150 Winter e Cole, Fluctuations, p. 243.
151 Voth, Civilian Health, p. 291.
152 La tesi fu proposta per la prima volta nel suo Great War, in particolare pp. 105-115, 140, 148, 187-188, e difesa in Public Health, pp. 163-173; per due critiche cfr. Bryder, First World War, pp. 141-157, e Voth, Civilian Health. Si veda anche Marwick, Deluge, pp. 64-65.
153 Kocka, Klassengesellschaft.
154 Hoffman, Grumbach e Hesse, Wachstum, p. 515. Il coefficiente è una misurazione rozza dell’equità delle entrate.
155 Feldman, Army, Industry and Labour, pp. 97-117, 471-472.
156 Cfr. Kraus, Die letzten Tage, pp. 334-335, per una magnifica scena in cui un negoziante si oppone a essere denunciato per avere violato la regolamentazione dei prezzi sostenendo di avere sottoscritto il prestito di guerra e di avere pagato le tasse.
157 Ferguson, Paper and Iron, pp. 134-135.
158 Moeller, Dimensions of Social Conflict, pp. 157-158.
159 Offer, First World War, pp. 56-57.
160 Ferguson, Paper and Iron, pp. 134-135.
161 Petzina, Abelshauser e Foust, Sozialgeschtliches Arbeitsbuch, vol. III, p. 124.
162 Lyth, Inflation, p. 158.
163 J.M. Winter, Great War, pp. 229, 242 sgg.; Marwick, Deluge, pp. 167, 243-244; Harrison, War Emergency Workers’ Committee, p. 233.
164 Su questo genere di lagnanze in Gran Bretagna si veda Waites, Effect, p. 51.
165 Cfr. Kocka, First World War; Günther, Die Folgen.
166 Schramm, Neun Generationen, vol. II, p. 495.
167 Ivi, p. 501.
168 Becker, Les Français.