Note

Prefazione all’edizione italiana

1 Paulin Ismard, La cité et ses esclaves. Institution, fictions, expériences, Paris, Seuil, 2019, p. 119.

2 Jack Linchuan Qiu, Goodbye iSlave: A Manifesto for Digital Abolition, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2017; Ruha Benjamin, Race After Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2019.

3 P. Ismard, La cité et ses esclaves, cit., p. 132.

4 Hugo Grotius, De Jure belli ac pacis, lib. ii, cap. v, 1625, § XXvii-2.

5 Maria Luisa Pesante, Come servi. Figure del lavoro salariato dal diritto naturale all’economia politica, Milano, Franco Angeli, 2013.

6 Alberto Romele, Francesco Gallino, Camilla Emmenegger e Daniele Gorgone, Panopticism is not enough: Social media as technologies of voluntary servitude, “Surveillance and Society”, vol. 15, n. 2, 2017, pp. 204-221.

7 Enrico Donaggio, Filamenti di servitù volontaria, “Storia del Pensiero Politico”, n. 2, 2016, pp. 177-182 (179).

8 Gary T. Marx, Soft Surveillance: Mandatory Voluntarism and the Collection of Personal Data, “Dissent”, vol. 52, n. 4, 2005, pp. 36-43.

Introduzione

1 Calvin LeGassick (a cura di), Artificial Intelligence Index: 2017 Annual Report, http://cdn.aiindex.org/2017-report.pdf

2 Folker Fröbel, Jürgen Heinrichs e Otto Kreye, The New International Division of Labour: Structural Unemployment in Industrialised Countries and Industrialisation in Developing Countries, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1977.

3 Antonio A. Casilli, Les Liaisons numériques. Vers une nouvelle sociabilité?, Paris, Seuil, 2010; Paola Tubaro, Antonio A. Casilli e Yasaman Sarabi, Against the Hypothesis of the “End of Privacy”. An Agent-Based Modelling Approach to Social Media, New York, Springer, 2014; Dominique Cardon e Antonio A. Casilli, Qu’est-ce que le digital labor?, Bry-sur-Marne, Éditions de l’Ina, 2015.

4 Jeremy Rifkin, La fine del lavoro, Milano, Mondadori, 2014 [1995].

5 Philippe Bernoux, Un travail à soi, Toulouse, Privat, 1981.

6 Mario Tronti, Operai e capitale, Roma, DeriveApprodi, 2019 [1966].

7 Yann Moulier Boutang, L’Abeille et l’Économiste, Paris, Carnets Nord, 2010; Andrea Fumagalli, La Vie mise au travail. Nouvelles formes du capitalisme cognitif, Paris, Eterotopia, 2015.

8 Paolo Virno, “Gli angeli e il general intellect”, ora in Id., E così via, all’infinito. Logica e antropologia, Torino, Bollati Boringhieri, 2010, pp. 197-216.

1. Gli esseri umani sostituiranno i robot?

1 Alan M. Turing, On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. A Correction, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, 42, pp. 230-265. Il secondo testo è stato tradotto con il titolo Macchine calcolatrici e intelligenza (1950), in Alan M. Turing, Intelligenza meccanica, a cura di Gabriele Lolli, Torino, Bollati Boringhieri, 1994.

2 Stuart G. Shanker, Wittgenstein versus Turing on the nature of Church’s thesis, “Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic”, vol. 28, n. 4, 1987, pp. 615-649 (616).

3 A. Turing, On Computable Numbers, cit.

4 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Osservazioni sulla filosofia della psicologia, Milano, Adelphi, 1990, § 1096, p. 305. Per un’analisi del significato di questa frase nel contesto della logica degli anni trenta del Novecento, si veda Pierre Wagner, Wittgenstein et les machines de Turing, “Revue de métaphysique et de morale”, vol. 46, n. 2, 2005, pp. 181-196.

5 Judson Chambers Webb, Mechanism, Mentalism, and Metamathematics: An Essay on Finitism, Dordrecht, D. Reidel, 1980, p. 220.

6 S.G. Shanker, Wittgenstein versus Turing on the nature of Church’s thesis, cit., p. 634.

7 Quinto Ennio, Annali, frammento 9, Diom. 447 K.

8 Thomas Mortimer, Lectures on the Elements of Commerce, Politics, and Finance, London, T.N. Longman & O. Rees, 1801, p. 72.

9 David Ricardo, Principi di economia politica e dell’imposta, Torino, Utet, 2006 [1821].

10 Andrew Ure, The Philosophy of Manufacturers, London, Chas. Knight, 1835, p. 23.

11 Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, New York, Basic Books, 1973.

12 Simon Nora e Alain Minc, L’Informatisation de la société, Paris, La Documentation française, 1978.

13 J. Rifkin, La fine del lavoro, cit.

14 Dominique Méda, Società senza lavoro. Per una nuova filosofia dell’occupazione?, Milano, Feltrinelli, 1997.

15 Manuel Castells, La nascita della società in rete, Milano, Università Bocconi Editore, 2014, p. 272.

16 Aad Blok, Introduzione a T.A. Blok e G. Downey (a cura di), Uncovering labour in information revolutions, 1750-2000”, “International Review of Social History”, vol. 48, suppl. 11, 2003, pp. 1-11.

17 Maarten Goos e Alan Manning, Lousy and lovely jobs: The rising polarization of work in Britain”, “The Review of Economics and Statistics”, vol. 89, n. 1, 2007, pp. 118-133.

18 Carl Benedikt Frey e Michael A. Osborne, The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation?, “Technological Forecasting and Social Change”, vol. 114, 2017, pp. 254-280.

19 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Productivity and costs second quarter 2017 – Revised, 7 settembre 2017, https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/prod2.pdf.

20 Dean Baker, Badly confused economics: The debate on automation, “The Hankyoreh”, edizione inglese, 5 febbraio 2017, http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_editorial/781397.html.

21 Georg Graetz e Guy Michaels, Robots at Work, “Iza Discussion Papers”, n. 8938, Institute for the Study of Labor (Iza), 2015, http://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp8938.

22 Dominique Méda, L’avenir du travail. Sens et valeur du travail en Europe, working paper dell’Ilo, n. 18, dicembre 2016, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---inst/documents/publication/wcms_536999.pdf.

23 International Federation of Robotics, World Robotics Industrial Robots, rapporto 2016, https://ifr.org/worldrobotics/.

24 André Leroi-Gourhan, Le Geste et la Parole, 1: Technique et langage, Paris, Albin Michel, 1964, p. 42.

25 Melanie Arntz, Terry Gregory e Ulrich Zierahn, The risk of automation for jobs in Oecd countries: A comparative analysis, “Oecd Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers”, n. 189, 2016.

26 David H. Autor, Why are there still so many jobs? The history and future of workplace automation, “Journal of Economic Perspectives”, vol. 29, n. 3, 2015, pp. 3-30 (5).

27 James Bessen, Toil and technology, “Finance and Development”, vol. 52, n. 1, pp. 16-19.

28 Michael Palm, The costs of paying, or three histories of swiping, in Olivier Frayssé e Mathieu O’Neil (a cura di), Digital Labour and Prosumer Capitalism: The Us Matrix, London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, pp. 51-65.

29 Marie-Anne Dujarier, Le Travail du consommateur. De MacDo à eBay: comment nous coproduisons ce que nous achetons, Paris, La Découverte, 2008.

30 Ursula Huws, The Making of a Cybertariat: Virtual Work in a Real World, “Monthly Review Press”, 2003, p. 19.

31 D. Méda, Società senza lavoro?, cit., p. 102.

32 Ibid.

33 Jérôme Porta e Alexandra Bidet, Le travail à l’épreuve du numérique. Regards disciplinaires croisés, droit/sociologie, “Revue de droit du travail”, n. 6, 2016, pp. 328-334.

34 Ivi, p. 333.

35 Ho articolato questo quadro concettuale nel mio Les Liaisons numériques, cit.

36 Mary L. Gray, Your job is about to get “taskified”, “Los Angeles Times”, 8 gennaio 2016, https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-0110-digital-turk-work-20160110-story.html.

37 Nils Lenke, Part 1 – AI for customer care: Human assisted virtual agents get smart with big knowledge, Nuance – In the Labs, 11 maggio 2016, https://web.archive.org/web/20170806104844/http://whatsnext.nuance.com/in-the-labs/human-assisted-virtual-agents-machine-learning-improve-customer-experience.

38 Cade Metz, Facebook’s human-powered assistant may just supercharge AI, “Wired”, 26 agosto 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/08/how-facebook-m-works/.

39 Ray Kurzweil, La singolarità è vicina, Milano, Apogeo, 2013.

40 Walter Benjamin, Sul concetto di storia, Torino, Einaudi, 1997, p. 21.

41 Izabella Kaminska, Silicon Valley’s God complex, in Stian Westlake (a cura di), Our Work here Is Done. Visions of a Robot Economy, London, Nesta, 2014, pp. 76-82.

42 Nikos Smyrnaios, Internet Oligopoly: The Corporate Takeover of Our Digital World, Bingley, Emerald Publishing, 2018.

43 Mark Ames, The Techtopus: How Silicon Valley’s most celebrated CEOs conspired to drive down 100,000 tech engineers’ wages, “Pando”, 23 gennaio 2014, https://pando.com/2014/01/23/the-techtopus-how-silicon-valleys-most-celebrated-ceos-conspired-to-drive-down-100000-tech-engineers-wages/.

44 N. Smyrnaios, Internet Oligopoly, cit.

45 François Vatin, Le Travail et ses valeurs, Paris, Albin Michel, 2008, pp. 160-162.

46 Franco Berardi, Contro il lavoro. Lo sviluppo al capitale, il potere agli operai, Milano, La Libreria, 1970, p. 111.

2. Di cosa parliamo quando parliamo di piattaforma digitale

1 L’espressione è stata resa popolare da Clayton Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail, Cambridge, Harvard Business Review Press, 1997.

2 La paternità di questa nozione viene attribuita all’ex presidente della concessionaria Publicis, Maurice Lévy. Cfr. Adam Thomson, Maurice Lévy tries to pick up Publicis after failed deal with Omnicom, “Financial Times”, 14 dicembre 2014.

3 Henri Verdier e Nicolas Colin, L’Âge de la multitude. Entreprendre et gouverner après la révolution numérique, Paris, Armand Colin, 2012.

4 Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (Bmbf), Zukunftsprojekt Industrie 4.0, https://www.bmbf.de/de/zukunftsprojekt-industrie-4-0-848.html.

5 Le Numérique déroutant, BpiFrance Le Lab, 2015, https://www.bpifrance-lelab.fr/Analyses-Reflexions/Les-Travaux-du-Lab/Le-numerique-deroutant.

6 Nick Srnicek, Capitalismo digitale. Google, Facebook, Amazon e la nuova economia del web, Roma, Luiss University Press, 2017.

7 Jean-Charles Rochet e Jean Tirole, Platform competition in two-sided markets, “Journal of the European Economic Association”, vol. 1, n. 4, 2003, pp. 990-1029.

8 Annabelle Gawer e Michael A. Cusumano, Platform Leadership: How Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco Drive Industry Innovation, Boston, Harvard Business School Press, 2002; Thomas R. Eisenmann, Geoffrey Parker e Marshall Van Alstyne, Opening platforms: How, when and why?, in Annabelle Gawer (a cura di), Platforms, Markets and Innovation, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2009, pp. 131-162.

9 Jane I. Guyer, Legacies, Logics, Logistics: Essays in the Anthropology of the Platform Economy, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2016, p. 114.

10 David S. Evans, Andrei Hagiu e Richard Schmalensee, Invisible Engines: How Software Platforms Drive Innovation and Transform Industries, Cambridge, Mit Press, 2006.

11 Carliss Y. Baldwin e C. Jason Woodard, The architecture of platforms: A unified view, in A. Gawer (a cura di), Platforms, Markets and Innovation, cit., pp. 19-44.

12 John L. Hennessy e David A. Patterson, Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach, New York, Elsevier, 1990.

13 Tarleton L. Gillespie, The platform metaphor, revisited, Alexander von Humboldt Institut für Internet und Gesellschaft, 24 agosto 2017, https://www.hiig.de/en/blog/the-platform-metaphor-revisited/.

14 Tarleton L. Gillespie, The politics of “platforms”, “New Media & Society”, vol. 12, n. 3, 2010, pp. 347-364 (364).

15 Hensleigh Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Etymology, vol. 2, London, Trübner & Co., 1862, p. 525; Douglas Harper, “Platform”, “Online Etymology Dictionary”, 2000, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=platform.

16 Nel capitolo 35, parlando della regione del Kent, il traduttore allude alla “fertilitie of the soile” considerandola come “the onelye platforme of Englande”. Stephen Batman, Batman vppon Bartholome his B­ooke De Proprietatibus Rerum, Newly Corrected, Enlarged and Amended, London, Thomas East, 1582.

17 Robert Stephens, Letters of Sr. Francis Bacon, Written during the Reign of King James, London, Benjamin Tooke, 1702, p. 287.

18 Congregational Churches in Massachusetts, The Cambridge Platform of Church Discipline, Cambridge Massachusetts Synod, 1648.

19 Congregational Churches in England, Savoy Declaration of Faith and Order, London, John Field, 1658.

20 Gerrard Winstanley, The Law of Freedom in a Platform; Or True Magistracy Restored, New York City, Schocken Books, 1973 [1652].

21 Winston Churchill, Divi Britannici: Being a Remark upon the Lives of all the Kings of this Isle from the Year of the World 2855, unto the Year of Grace 1660, London, Thomas Roycroft, 1675 [1660], p. 356.

22 Tim O’Reilly, Government as a Platform, “Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization”, vol. 6, n. 1, 2011, pp. 13-40 (13).

23 Ivi, p. 33.

24 William Lazonick, Marketization, globalization, financialization: The fragility of the US economy in an era of global change, 2010 Bhc Meeting, Athens, Georgia, 27 marzo 2010, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.628.1345&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

25 William Lazonick, The new economy business model and the crisis of US capitalism, “Capitalism and Society”, vol. 4, n. 2, art. 4, 2009.

26 Blanche Segrestin e Armand Hatchuel, Refonder l’entreprise, Paris, Seuil/La République des idées, 2012, p. 63.

27 Ronald H. Coase, The Nature of the Firm, “Economica”, 4 (16), 1937, pp. 386-405.

28 Oliver E. Williamson, The vertical integration of production: Market failure considerations, “American Economic Review”, vol. 61, n. 2, 1971, pp. 112-123.

29 Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information, Harvard, Harvard University Press, 2016.

30 David S. Evans, Platform Economics: Essays on Multi-Sided Businesses, Scotts Valley, Createspace Independent Publishing, 2011.

31 Kevin Kelly, I’ll pay you to read my book, “The Technium”, 1° giugno 2012, http://kk.org/thetechnium/ill-pay-you-to/.

32 Lisa Nakamura, “Words with friends”: Socially networked reading on Good­reads­, “Pmla”, vol. 128, n. 1, 2013, pp. 238-243.

33 Amrit Tiwana, Platform Ecosystems: Aligning Architecture, Governance, and Strategy, San Francisco, Morgan Kaufmann, 2013, p. 80.

34 Christophe Benavent, Plateformes. Sites collaboratifs, marketplaces, réseaux sociaux, Limoges, Fyp Éditions, 2016.

35 Michael L. Tushman e Richard R. Nelson, Technology, organizations and innovation – Introduction, “Administrative Science Quarterly”, vol. 35, n. 1, 1990, pp. 1-8.

36 Claudia U. Ciborra, The platform organization: Recombining strategies, structures, and surprises, “Organization Science”, vol. 7, n. 2, pp. 103-118.

37 Cliff Bowman e Véronique Ambrosini, Value creation versus value capture: Towards a coherent definition of value in strategy, “British Journal of Management”, vol. 11, n. 1, 2000, pp. 1-15.

38 Michael Ryall, The new dynamics of competition, “Harvard Business Review”, vol. 91, n. 6, 2013, pp. 80-87.

39 David J. Teece e Greg Linden, Business models, value capture, and the digital enterprise, “Journal of Organization Design”, vol. 6, n. 8, 2017.

40 Garth Johnston, Comcast site teams with Facebook, “Broadcasting & Cable”, vol. 137, n. 7, 2007, p. 16.

41 Nicole Cohen, The valorization of surveillance: Towards a political economy of Facebook, “Democratic Communiqué”, vol. 22, n. 1, 2008, pp. 5-22.

42 Juliette Garside, Twitter puts trillions of tweets up for sale to data miners, “The Guardian”, 18 marzo 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/mar/18/twitter-puts-trillions-tweets-for-sale-data-miners.

43 Michael S. Daubs e Kathleen Kuehn, The holy trail: Rethinking “value” in Google’s ubiquitous mapping project, “MediaNZ”, vol. 16, n. 1, 2017.

44 Dave Gooden, How Airbnb became a billion dollar company, “Dave Gooden Blog”, 31 maggio 2011, http://davegooden.com/2011/05/how-airbnb-became-a-billion-dollar-company/; Matt Rosoff, Airbnb farmed Craigslist to grow its listings, says competitor, “Business Insider”, 31 maggio 2011, https://www.businessinsider.fr/us/airbnb-harvested-craigslist-to-grow-its-listings-says-competitor-2011-5.

45 Natt Garun, Airbnb will now use Foursquare photos in its city guides, “The Verge”, 7 dicembre 2016, https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/7/13869010/airbnb-buys-foursquare-photos-city-guides.

46 Hector Yee e Bar Ifrach, Aerosolve: Machine learning for humans, Medium, “Airbnb Engineering & Data Science”, 4 giugno 2015, https://medium.com/airbnb-engineering/aerosolve-machine-learning-for-humans-55efcf602665.

47 William H. Davidow, The Virtual Corporation: Structuring and Revitalizing the Corporation for the 21st Century, New York, HarperBusiness, 1992.

48 Raymond E. Miles, Charles C. Snow, John A. Mathews, Grant Miles e Henry J. Coleman, Jr., Organizing in the Knowledge Age: Anticipating the cellular form, “Academy of Management Executive”, vol. 11, n. 4, 1997, pp. 7-20.

49 Ikujiro Nonaka e Hirotaka Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation, New York, Oxford University Press, 1995.

50 Gunnar Hedlund, A model of knowledge management and the N-form corporation, “Strategic Management Journal”, vol. 15, n. s2, 1994, pp. 73-90.

51 Robert W. Zmud, The designing organization in the netcentric economy, Netcentricity Symposium, Decision and Information Technologies, R.H. Smith Business School, University of Maryland, 30-31 marzo 2001, https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e89d/85f80d2d40061273b7ff358a8632270327ca.pdf.

52 Jathan Sadowski, Alarmed by Admiral’s data grab? Wait until insurers can see the contents of your fridge, “The Guardian”, 2 novembre 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/nov/02/admiral-facebook-data-insurers-internet-of-things; Elisa Braün, Le Bhv aspire les données de ses clients, mais il est loin d’être le seul, “Le Figaro”, 3 agosto 2017, https://www.lefigaro.fr/secteur/high-tech/2017/08/02/32001-20170802ARTFIG00264-le-bhv-aspire-les-donnees-de-ses-clients-mais-il-est-loin-d-etre-le-seul.php.

53 Julien Lausson, La Sncf va installer le Wi-Fi dans 300 rames Tgv d’ici mi-2017, “Numerama”, 13 aprile 2016, https://www.numerama.com/tech/162890-la-sncf-va-installer-le-wi-fi-dans-300-rames-tgv-dici-mi-2017.html.

54 Aurélie Barbaux, La Sncf va permettre l’accès à Internet dans tous les trains… et vendre ses données, “L’Usine Digitale”, 10 febbraio 2015, https://www.usine-digitale.fr/article/la-sncf-va-permettre-l-acces-a-internet-dans-tous-les-trains-et-vendre-ses-donnees.N312497.

55 Olivier Razemon, Avec #TGVPop, la Sncf se rallie à l’“uberisation” de la mobilité”, “Le Monde”, 18 giugno 2015, http://www.lemonde.fr/entreprises/article/2015/06/18/avec-tgvpop-la-sncf-se-rallie-a-l-uberisation-de-la-mobilite_4656471_1656994.html.­

56 Efrat Nechushtai, Could digital platforms capture the media through infrastructure?, “Journalism”, vol. 19, n. 8, 2018, pp. 1043-1058.

57 Michael Levine e Jennifer L. Forrence, Regulatory capture, public interest, and the public agenda: Toward a synthesis, “Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization”, vol. 6, Special Papers from the Organization of Political Institutions Conference, 1990, pp. 167-198.

58 Fabian Muniesa, A flank movement in the understanding of valuation, “Sociological Review”, vol. 59, n. s2, 2011, pp. 24-38.

59 Michel Callon, Postface. La formulation marchande des biens, in François Vatin (a cura di), Évaluer et valoriser. Une sociologie économique de la mesure, Toulouse, Presses universitaires du Mirail, 2009, pp. 247-269.

60 Ivi, p. 251.

61 Michel Callon, Cécile Méadel e Vololona Rabeharisoa, L’économie des qualités, “Politix”, vol. 13, n. 52, 2000, pp. 211-239.

62 Claes-Fredrik Helgesson e Fabian Muniesa, For what it’s worth: An introduction to valuation studies, “Valuation Studies”, vol. 1, n. 1, 2013, pp. 1-10.

63 M. Callon, Postface. La formulation marchande des biens, cit., p. 249.

3. Il digital labor on demand

1 Antonio Aloisi, The rising of on-demand work, a case study research on a set of online platforms and apps, comunicazione alla 4th Conference on Regulating for Decent Work, Genève, Ilo, 8-10 luglio 2015, https://www.uu.nl/en/file/21395/.

2 Ben Fox Rubin, Instacart offers some contractors part-time employment, “Cnet”, 22 giugno 2015, https://www.cnet.com/news/instacart-offers-some-contractors-part-time-employment/.

3 Arun Sundararajan, The Sharing Economy: The End of Employment and the Rise of Crowd-Based Capitalism, Cambridge, Mit Press, 2016.

4 Yochai Benkler e Helen Nissenbaum, Commons-based peer production and virtue, “The Journal of Political Philosophy”, vol. 4, n. 14, 2006, pp. 394-419.

5 Valerio De Stefano, The rise of the “just-in-time workforce”: On-demand work, crowdwork and labour protection in the “gig-economy”, “Conditions of Work and Employment Series”, n. 71, 2016, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---travail/documents/publication/wcms_443267.pdf.

6 Stime recenti indicano che nel 2020 i lavoratori delle piattaforme on demand dovrebbero rappresentare l’11 per cento degli attivi negli Usa (Ursula Huws, Platform labour: Sharing economy or virtual Wild West?, “Journal for a Progressive Economy”, gennaio 2016, pp. 24-27 [27]). In Europa i redditi lordi generati da questi servizi ammontavano nel 2015 a 28 milioni di euro. Il settore di attività più importante in termini di utile è costituito dal trasporto on demand; in termini di fatturato spicca invece il settore dell’ospitalità (Marion Schmid-Drüner, The situation of workers in the collaborative economy, European Parliament, PE 587.316, Directorate General for Internal Policies, Policy Department A: Economic and Scientific Policy, ottobre 2016), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2016/587316/IPOL_IDA%282016%29587316_EN.pdf.

7 Antonio Aloisi, Commoditized workers: Case study research on labour law issues arising from a set of “on-demand/gig economy” platforms, “Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal”, vol. 37, n. 3, 2016, pp. 37-38.

8 Maya Kosoff, Two workers are suing a cleaning startup called Handy over alleged labor violations, “Business Insider”, 12 novembre 2014, http://www.businessinsider.fr/us/handy-cleaning-lawsuit-2014-11/.

9 Hilary Osborne, Uber loses right to classify UK drivers as self- employed, “The Guardian”, 28 ottobre 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/oct/28/uber-uk-tribunal-self-employed-status; L’Urssaf poursuit Uber pour requalifier ses chauffeurs en salaries, “Le Monde”, 15 maggio 2016, http://www.lemonde.fr/economie-francaise/article/2016/05/17/l-urssafpoursuit-uber-pour-requalifier-ses-chauffeurs-en-salaries_4920825_1656968.html; David Streitfeld, Uber drivers win preliminary class-action status in labor case, “The New York Times”, 12 luglio 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/12/business/uber-drivers-class-action.html.

10 Jean-Pierre Chauchard, L’apparition de nouvelles formes d’emploi: l’exemple de l’ubérisation, in Michel Borgetto, Anne-Sophie Ginon, Frédéric Guiomard e Denis Piveteau (a cura di), Travail et protection sociale: de nouvelles articulations?, Paris, Lgdj, 2017, pp. 73-88.

11 Travail emploi numérique: les nouvelles trajectoires, Rapporto del Conseil national du numérique, 6 gennaio 2016, https://travail-emploi.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/rapport_cnnum_travail_version_finale.pdf.

12 Ilaria Maselli, Karolien Lenaerts e Miroslav Beblavý, Five things we need to know about the on-demand economy, “Ceps Essay”, n. 21, 8 gennaio 2016, https://www.ceps.eu/system/files/CEPS%20Essay%20No%2021%20On%20Demand%20Economy.pdf.

13 Lawrence F. Katz e Alan B. Krueger, The rise and nature of alternative work arrangements in the United States, 1995-2015, “Nber Working Paper”, n. 22667, settembre 2016, http://dataspace.princeton.edu/jspui/bitstream/88435/dsp01zs25xb933/3/603.pdf.

14 Non-standard employment around the world: Understanding challenges, shaping prospects, Genève, Ilo, novembre 2016, http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_534326/lang--en/index.htm.

15 Jonathan V. Hall e Alan B. Krueger, An Analysis of the Labor Market for Uber’s Driver-Partners in the United States, “Nber Working Paper”, n. 22843, novembre 2016, http://dataspace.princeton.edu/jspui/bitstream/88435/dsp010z708z67d/5/587.pdf.

16 Henry Ross, Ridesharing’s House of Cards: O’Connor v. Uber Technologies, Inc. and the viability of Uber’s labor model in Washington, “Washington Law Review”, vol. 90, n. 3, 2015, pp. 1431-1469.

17 William A. Herbert e Amelia K. Tuminaro, The impact of emerging technologies in the workplace: Who’s watching the man (who’s watching me)?, “Hofstra Labor & Employment Law Journal”, vol. 25, n. 1, 2008, art. 1.

18 Etsy employees call for health insurance for sellers, standardized benefits, more transparency, “Freelancers Union”, 15 agosto 2017, https://blog.freelancersunion.org/2017/08/15/etsy-employees-call-for-health-insurance-for-sellers-standardized-benefits-more-transparency/.

19 Pierre Duquesne, L’esclavage moderne, livré à domicile, “L’Humanité”, 21 aprile 2016, https://www.humanite.fr/lesclavage-moderne-livre-domicile-605275.

20 U. Huws, Platform labour, cit.

21 Willem Pieter De Groen e Ilaria Maselli, The impact of the collaborative economy on the labour market, “Ceps Special Report”, n. 138, giugno 2016, https://www.ceps.eu/system/files/SR138CollaborativeEconomy_0.pdf.

22 Tomio Geron, Startup Homejoy works with public sector to find home cleaners, “Forbes”, 3 settembre 2013, https://www.forbes.com/sites/tomiogeron/2013/09/03/startup-homejoy-works-with-cities-to-find-workers/.

23 Daniel Szomoru, The economic case for Uber in France, Medium, Uber Under the Hood: Insights and updates from the Uber public policy team, 3 marzo 2016, https://medium.com/uber-under-the-hood/the-economic-case-for-uber-in-france-1530aa95365e.

24 How much are people making from the sharing economy?, “Earnest Blog”, 13 giugno 2017, https://www.earnest.com/blog/sharing-economy-income-data/.

25 Noam Scheiber, Uber drivers and others in the gig economy take a stand, “The New York Times”, 2 febbraio 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/03/business/uber-drivers-and-others-in-the-gig-economytake-a-stand.html.

26 Carolyn Said, Lyft drivers to remain contractors in lawsuit settlement, “SF Gate”, 27 gennaio 2016, http://www.sfgate.com/business/ article/Lyft-drivers-to-remain-contractors-in-lawsuit-6787390.php.

27 Council unanimously adopts first-of-its-kind legislation to give drivers a voice on the job, comunicato stampa del Seattle City Council, 14 dicembre 2015, https://www.seattle.gov/council/issues/giving-drivers-a-voice.

28 M. Schmid-Drüner, The situation of workers in the collaborative economy, cit.

29 Yanbo Ge, Christopher R. Knittel, Don MacKenzie e Stephen Zoepf, Racial and gender discrimination in transportation network companies, “Nber Working Paper”, n. 22776, ottobre 2016, http://www.nber.org/papers/w22776.

30 Benjamin Edelman, Michael Luca e Dan Svirsky, Racial discrimination in the sharing economy: Evidence from a field experiment, “American Economic Journal: Applied Economics”, vol. 9, n. 2, 2017, pp. 1-22.

31 Christophe Degryse, Digitalisation of the economy and its impact on labour markets, “Etui Working Paper”, n. 2016.02, http://www.etui.org/content/download/22130/184851/file/ver+2+web+version+Working+Paper+2016+02-EN+digitalisation.pdf.

32 A. Sundararajan, The Sharing Economy, cit.

33 Min Kyung Lee, Daniel Kusbit, Evan Metsky e Laura Dabbish, Working with machines: The impact of algorithmic and data-driven management on human workers, in Bo Begole e Jinwoo Kim (a cura di), Chi ’15: Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Acm Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, Acm, 2015, pp. 1603-1612; Alex Rosenblat, Uberland: How Algorithms Are Rewriting the Rules of Work, Oakland, University of California Press, 2018.

34 Alex Rosenblat e Luke Stark, Algorithmic labor and information asymmetries: A case study of Uber’s drivers, “International Journal of Communication”, vol. 10, n. 1, 2016, pp. 3758-3784.

35 Alex Rosenblat, How can wage theft emerge in app-mediated work?, “The Rideshare Guy”, 10 agosto 2016, https://therideshareguy.com/how-can-wage-theft-emerge-in-app-mediated-work/.

36 Camille Alloing, La E-réputation. Médiation, calcul, émotion, Paris, Cnrs Éditions, 2016.

37 Jay Cassano, How Uber profits even while its drivers aren’t earning money, “Vice”, 2 febbraio 2016, https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/wnxd84/how-uber-profits-even-while-its-drivers-arent-earning-money.

38 Thi Nguyen, Eta phone home: How Uber engineers an efficient route, “Uber Engineering”, 3 novembre 2015, https://eng.uber.com/engineering-an-efficient-route/.

39 Marcus Wohlsen, Uber boss says surging prices rescue people from the snow, “Wired”, 17 dicembre 2013, https://www.wired.com/2013/12/uber-surge-pricing/.

40 Liat Clark, Uber denies researchers “phantom cars” map claim, “Wired”, 28 luglio 2015, http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2015-07/28/uber-cars-always-in-real-time.

41 Per esempio, in occasione della sentenza del 20 dicembre 2017 della Corte di giustizia europea che ha sostenuto che l’azienda americana fa “parte integrante di un servizio globale il cui elemento principale è un servizio di trasporto”. Cjue, Uber Systems Spain SL C-434/15, 20 dicembre 2017.

42 Hungyu Lin, Travis Kalanick e Emily Wang, System and method for providing dynamic supply positioning for on-demand services, brevetto US20140011522 A1, 9 gennaio 2014.

43 Jonathan Hall, Cory Kendrick e Chris Nosko, The effects of Uber’s surge pricing: A case study, comunicazione al convegno Designing the Digital Economy, Cambridge, Microsoft Research New England, 24-25 ottobre 2015, https://bd166f8b-a-62cb3a1a-s-sites.googlegroups.com/site/cuhkeconit/lecture-notes/networkeffectslock-insandantitrust/effects_of_ubers_surge_pricing.pdf=0.

44 James Temperton, Uber can now track your location even when you’re not on a ride, “Wired”, 2 dicembre 2016, http://www.wired.co.uk/article/uber-track-location-data-update-turn-off.

45 Introducing the Uber API, “Uber Newsroom”, 20 agosto 2014, https://eng.uber.com/uber-api/.

46 Introducing Uber Trip Experiences, “Uber Newsroom”, 12 gennaio 2016, https://newsroom.uber.com/trip-experiences-api/.

47 Camille Alloing e Julien Pierre, Le Web affectif. Une économie numérique des émotions, Bry-sur-Marne, Ina Éditions, 2017.

48 Maureen Dowd, Driving Uber mad, “The New York Times”, 23 maggio 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/24/opinion/sunday/maureen-dowd-driving-uber-mad.html.

49 Jordan Crook, Uber confirms it’s testing self-driving cars in Pittsburgh, “Tech­crunch”, 19 maggio 2016, http://techcrunch.com/2016/05/19/ uber-confirms-its-testing-self-driving-cars-in-pittsburgh/.

50 Max Chafkin, Uber’s first self-driving fleet arrives in Pittsburgh this month, “Bloo­mberg”, 18 agosto 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2016-08-18/uber-s-first-self-driving-fleet-arrives-in-pittsburgh-this-month-is06r7on.

51 È il caso dell’incidente mortale avvenuto in Arizona il 19 marzo 2018­. La videocamera situata all’interno del veicolo a guida autonoma che ha investito un pedone mostra la presenza di una persona seduta al posto del conduttore. Sam Levin, Video released of Uber self-driving crash that killed woman in Arizona, “The Guardian”, 22 marzo 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/mar/22/video-released-of-uber-self-driving-crash-that-killed-woman-in-arizona.

52 Scott Le Vinea, Alirez Zolfagharib e John Polak, Autonomous cars: The tension between occupant experience and intersection capacity, “Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies”, vol. 52, n. 1, 2015, pp. 1-14.

53 On the road to fully self-driving, “Waymo Safety Report”, n. 12, ottobre 2017, https://www.mtfchallenge.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/waymo-safety-report-2017-10.pdf.

54 Cara Bloom, Joshua Tan, Javed Ramjohn e Lujo Bauer, Self-driving cars and data collection: Privacy perceptions of networked autonomous vehicles, in Lorrie Faith Cranor (a cura di), Soups ’17: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security, New York, Acm, 2017, pp. 357-375.

55 Our road to self-driving vehicles: Uber Atg, canale YouTube di Uber Advanced Technologies Group, 6 ottobre 2017, https://youtu.be/27OuOCeZmwI.

56 Anthony Levandowski, Self-driving cars, Distinguished Innovator Lecture, University of California, Berkeley, 12 novembre 2013.

4. Il microlavoro

1 David Durward, Ivo Blohm e Jan Marco Leimeister, Principal forms of crowdsourcing and crowd work, in Werner Wobbe, Elva Bova e Catalin Dragomirescu-Gaina (a cura di), The Digital Economy And The Single Market: Employment Prospects and Working Conditions in Europe, Bruxelles, Foundation for European Progressive Studies, 2016, pp. 39-55.

2 Edgar Allan Poe, Il giocatore di scacchi di Maelzel, Milano, SE, 2009, p. 17.

3 Cfr. supra.

4 Birgitta Bergvall-Kåreborn e Debra Howcroft, Amazon Mechanical Turk and the commodification of labour, “New Technology, Work and Employment”, vol. 29, n. 3, 2014, pp. 213-223.

5 Fonte: Mechanical Turk Tracker, http://demographics.mturk-tracker.com.

6 Ned Rossiter, Software, Infrastructure, Labor: A Media Theory of Logistical Nightmares, New York, Routledge, 2016.

7 Turkernation, The reasons why Amazon Mechanical Turk no longer accepts international Turkers, “Tips For Requesters On Mechanical Turk”, 17 gennaio 2013, http://turkrequesters.blogspot.fr/2013/01/the-reasons-why-amazon-mechanical-turk.html.

8 Ellie Pavlick, Matt Post, Ann Irvine, Dmitry Kachaev e Chris Callison-Burch, The language demographics of Amazon Mechanical Turk, “Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics”, vol. 2, n. 1, 2014, pp. 79-92.

9 Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis, Demographics of Mechanical Turk, “Behind The Enemy Lines”, 6 aprile 2015, http://www.behind-the-enemy-lines.com/2015/04/demographics-of-mechanical-turk-now.html.

10 Djellel Eddine Difallah, Michele Catasta, Gianluca Demartini, Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis e Philippe Cudré-Mauroux, The dynamics of micro-task crowdsourcing – The case of Amazon Mechanical Turk, Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web, Genève, International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee, 2015, pp. 238-247.

11 Paul Hitlin, Research in the crowdsourcing age, a case study, Pew Research Center, Internet & Technology, 11 luglio 2016, http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/07/11/research-in-the-crowdsourcing-age-a-case-study/.

12 John Joseph Horton e Lydia B. Chilton, The labor economics of paid crowdsourcing, EC ’10: Proceedings of the 11th ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce, New York, Acm, 2010, pp. 209-218.

13 Kotaro Hara, Abi Adams, Kristy Milland, Saiph Savage, Chris Callison-Burch e Jeffrey Bigham, A data-driven analysis of workers’ earnings on Amazon Mechanical Turk, arXiv, 14 dicembre 2017, https://arxiv.org/abs/1712.05796.

14 Announcing the sentiment app on Mechanical Turk, Amazon Mechanical Turk, 1° ottobre 2012, https://blog.mturk.com/announcing-the-sentiment-app-on-mechanical-turk-245a80c2ca57.

15 Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis, Analyzing the Amazon Mechanical Turk marketplace, “Xrds: Crossroads”, vol. 17, n. 2, 2010, pp. 16-21.

16 Amazon Mechanical Turk pricing, Amazon Mechanical Turk, 2018, https://requester.mturk.com/pricing.

17 Janine Berg, Income security in the on-demand economy: Findings and policy lessons from a survey of crowdworkers, “Conditions of Work and Employment Series”, n. 74, Genève, Ilo, 2016, p. 11.

18 FAQs: My work was rejected, what can I do?, Amazon Mechanical Turk, 2018, https://www.mturk.com/mturk/help?helpPage=worker#work_rejected.

19 Lilly C. Irani e M. Six Silberman, Turkopticon: Interrupting worker invisibility in Amazon Mechanical Turk, Chi ’13: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, Acm, 2013, pp. 611-620.

20 Participation Agreement, Amazon Mechanical Turk, 17 ottobre 2017, https://www.mturk.com/mturk/conditionsofuse.

21 Amazon Mechanical Turk pricing, Amazon Mechanical Turk, 2018, https://requester.mturk.com/pricing.

22 Dear Jeff Bezos, WeAreDynamo, 2014, http://www.wearedynamo.org/dearjeffbezos.

23 Miranda Katz, Amazon’s Turker crowd has had enough, “Wired”, 23 agosto 2017, https://www.wired.com/story/amazons-turker-crowd-has-had-enough/.

24 Stanford Crowd Research Collective, Daemo: a self-governed crowdsourcing marketplace, Uist’15: Adjunct Proceedings of the 28th Annual Acm Symposium on User Interface Software & Technology, New York, Acm, 2015, pp. 101-102.

25 Cfr. supra.

26 Luis von Ahn e Laura Dabbish, Labeling images with a computer game, Proceedings of the Sigchi Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, Acm, 2004, pp. 319-326.

27 Aniket Kittur, Jeffrey V. Nickerson, Michael S. Bernstein, Elizabeth M. Gerber, Aaron Shaw, John Zimmerman, Matthew Lease e John J. Horton, The future of crowd work, Cscw ’13: Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, New York, Acm, 2013, pp. 1301-1318.

28 Rion Snow, Brendan O’Connor, Daniel Jurafsky e Andrew Y. Ng, Cheap and fast – but is it good?: Evaluating non-expert annotations for natural language tasks, Emnpl ’08: Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Stroudsburg, Association for Computational Linguistics, 2008, pp. 254-263.

29 Ian McGraw, Chia-ying Lee, Lee Hetherington, Stephanie Seneff e James R. Glass, Collecting voices from the cloud, Proceedings of the Language Resources and Evaluation, 2010.

30 Yotam Gingold, Ariel Shamir e Daniel Cohen-Or, Micro perceptual human computation for visual tasks, “Acm Transactions on Graphics”, vol. 31, n. 5, 2012, art. n. 119.

31 Greg Little, Lydia B. Chilton, Max Goldman e Robert C. Miller, TurKit: Human computation algorithms on Mechanical Turk, Uist ’10: Proceedings of the 23nd Annual Acm Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, New York, Acm, 2010, pp. 57-66.

32 Gordon Wintrob, Human-powered apps with the Scale API, Medium – Get Put Post, 25 ottobre 2016, https://getputpost.co/human-powered-apps-with-the-scale-api-5325b0a715f8.

33 “This is basically people-as-a-service.” Jeff Bezos, Opening keynote and keynote interview, Mit World – Special Events and Lectures, 27 settembre 2006, http://techtv.mit.edu/videos/16180-opening-keynote-and-keynote-interview-with-jeff-bezos.

34 Mia Spangenberg, Bing HRS Judging Guidelines, “Scribd”, 18 giugno 2013, p. 3, https://www.scribd.com/document/357974295/HRS-Web-Judging-Guidelines-2013-06-13.

35 “Your judgements are fed to machines that use this information to learn how to make automatic judgements about quality.” Rafael Sánchez, Vallejo Bey, Ads Evaluation Rater Hub, “Scribd”, s.d., p. 3, https://www.scribd.com/document/310542844/Ads-Evaluation-Rater-Hub.

36 Annalee Newitz, The secret lives of Google raters, “ArsTechnica”, 27 aprile 2017, https://arstechnica.com/features/2017/04/the-secret-lives-of-google-raters/.

37 Saori Imaizumi, Siou Chew Kuek, Panos Ipeirotis, Cecilia Maria Paradi-Guilford e Toks Fayomi, The global opportunity in online outsourcing, The World Bank Report n. ACS14228, 2015, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/138371468000900555/The-global-opportunity-in-online-outsourcing.

38 Ivi, p. 1.

39 Vili Lehdonvirta e Mirko Ernkvist, Converting the virtual economy into development potential: Knowledge map of the virtual economy, Washington, infoDev/World Bank, 2011, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/27361.

40 Saori Imaizumi e Indhira Santos, Online outsourcing: A global job opportunity for everyone?, Let’s Talk Development, The World Bank, 1° dicembre 2016, https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/online-outsourcing-global-job-opportunity-everyone.

41 Vili Lehdonvirta, Do platforms connect clients directly to providers? The new network patterns of digital work, The Digital Inequality Group, Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, 20 agosto 2015, http://dig.oii.ox.ac.uk/2015/08/20/do-platforms-connect-clients-directly-to-providers-the-new-network-patterns-of-digital-work/.

42 Vili Lehdonvirta, Helena Barnard e Mark Graham, Online labour markets – leveling the playing field for international service markets?, comunicazione al convegno Internet, Politics & Policy 2014, Oxford, 2014; Vili Lehdonvirta, Online platforms, diversity and fragmentation, relazione al convegno Digital Transformations of Work, Oxford, Oxford Internet Institute, 10 marzo 2016.

43 Gang Wang, Christo Wilson, Xiaohan Zhao, Yibo Zhu, Manish Mohanlal, Haitao Zheng e Ben Y. Zhao, Serf and turf: Crowdturfing for fun and profit, WWW ’12: Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on World Wide Web, New York, ACM, 2012, pp. 679-688.

44 Vili Lehdonvirta, Isis Hjorth, Mark Graham e Helena Barnard, Online labour markets and the persistence of personal networks: Evidence from workers in Southeast Asia, relazione al convegno dell’American Sociological Association 2015, Chicago, agosto 2015.

45 Citato in V. Lehdonvirta, Do platforms connect clients directly to providers?, cit.

46 Ming Yin, Mary L. Gray, Siddharth Suri e Jennifer Wortman Vaughan, The communication network within the crowd, WWW ’16: Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on World Wide Web, Montréal, Québec, 2016, pp. 1293-1303.

47 David Martin, Jacki O’Neill, Neha Gupta e Benjamin V. Hanrahan, Turking in a global labour market, Computer Supported Cooperative Work (Cscw), vol. 25, n. 1, 2016, pp. 39-77.

48 Sara Constance Kingsley, Mary L. Gray e Siddharth Suri, Accounting for market frictions and power asymmetries in online labor markets, Policy & Internet, vol. 7, n. 4, 2015, pp. 383-400.

49 Tobias Hoßfeld, Matthias Hirth e Phuoc Tran-Gia, Modeling of crowdsourcing platforms and granularity of work organization in future Internet, Itc ’11: 23rd International Teletraffic Congress Pages, San Francisco, 2011, pp. 142-149; Mark Graham, Isis Hjorth e Vili Lehdonvirta, Digital labour and development: impacts of global digital labour platforms and the gig economy on worker livelihoods, Transfer: “European Review of Labour and Research”, vol. 23, n. 2, 2017, pp. 135-162.

50 Siou Chew Kuek, Cecilia Paradi-Guilford, Alexander Linden e Ihab Jabari, Feasibility study: Microwork for the Palestinian Territories, Country Management Unit for the Palestinian Territories (MNC04)/Information Communication Technologies Unit (Twict), The World Bank, febbraio 2013, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWESTBANKGAZA/Resources/Finalstudy.pdf; Alison Gillwald, Mothobi Onkokame e Aude Schoentgen, What is the state of microwork in Africa? A view from seven countries, Research ICT Africa Policy Paper Series 5: After Access- Assessing digital inequality in Africa, 2017, https://researchictafrica.net/wp/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/After-Access_The-state-of-microwork-­in-Africa.pdf; Mrunal Gawade, Rajan Vaish, Mercy Nduta Waihumbu e James Davis, Exploring employment opportunities through microtasks via cybercafes, Proceedings of the 2012 Ieee Global Humanitarian Technology Conference, Washington, Ieee Computer Society, 2012, pp. 77-82.

51 World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2016, Genève, International Labour Office, 2016.

52 Social security programs throughout the World: Africa, 2017, Woodlawn, MD, The United States Social Security Administration, 2017, https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/progdesc/ssptw/2016-2017/africa/index.html; Social Security Programs Throughout the World: Asia and the Pacific, 2016, The United States Social Security Administration, 2017, https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/progdesc/ssptw/2016-2017/asia/index.html.

53 World social protection report 2014/15 – Building economic recovery, inclusive development and social justice, Genève, International Labour Office, 2014.

54 Mark Graham, Alex Wood, Isis Hjorth e Vili Lehdonvirta, Digital labour and development: New knowledge economies or digital sweatshops, comunicazione al convegno Digital Transformations of Work, Oxford, Oxford Internet Institute, 2016.

55 The Monitor Group/Rockefeller Foundation, Job creation through building the field of impact sourcing, working paper, Monitor Inclusive Markets, giugno 2011.

56 Artificial intelligence powered by human intelligence, Samasource, 2018, https://www.samasource.org/.

57 Contact us, IsAHit, 2018, http: //www.isahit.com.

58 IsAHit: Edwige working for IsAHit in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, YouTube, 5 dicembre 2016, https://youtu.be/hS9EXxdFJVc.

59 IsAHit: Betty working for IsAHit in Congo, Pointe Noire, YouTube, 22 dicembre 2016, https://youtu.be/PKixsyRSBaA.

60 IsAHit – hiteuse du mois de luglio 2017, Diane Guessan, Côte d’Ivoire, YouTube, 28 luglio 2017, https://youtu.be/sQFlYDtLcjE.

61 Fareesa Malik, Brian Nicholson e Sharon Morgan, Towards a taxonomy and critique of impact sourcing, Relazione alla 8th International Conference in Critical Management Studies, Manchester, 2013.

62 Ashok Chandrashekar e Philip Schary, Toward the virtual supply chain: The convergence of IT and organization, International Journal of Logistics Management, vol. 10, n. 2, 1999, pp. 27-39.

63 Google LLC, Crowdsource, Google Play, 2016, https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.google.android.apps.village.boond.

64 Ignacio Garcia, Beyond translation memory: Computers and the professional translator, “Journal of Specialized Translation”, n. 12, 2009, pp. 199-214.

65 Paul Baker e Amanda Potts, “Why do white people have thin lips?” Google and the perpetuation of stereotypes via auto-complete search forms, “Critical Discourse Studies”, vol. 10, n. 2, 2013, pp. 187-204 (189).

66 Quick, Draw!, “Quick Draw With Google”, 2016, https://quickdraw.withgoogle.com/.

67 Ian Goodfellow, Jean Pouget-Abadie, Mehdi Mirza, Bing Xu, David Warde-Farley, Sherjil Ozair, Aaron Courville e Yoshua Bengio, Generative adversarial nets, “Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems”, 27 (Nips 2014), 2014, pp. 2672-2680.

68 David Ha e Douglas Eck, A neural representation of sketch drawings, v4, arXiv, 19 maggio 2017, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1704.03477.pdf.

69 Paško Bilić, Search algorithms, hidden labour and information control, “Big Data & Society”, vol. 3, n. 1, 2016, pp. 1-9.

70 Antonio A. Casilli, Digital labor: travail, technologies et conflictualités, in D. Cardon e A.A. Casilli, Qu’est-ce que le digital labor?, cit., p. 22.

71 reCAPTCHA v3 Beta: The new way to stop bots, Google, 2018, https://www.google.com/recaptcha/intro/v3beta.html.

72 Luis von Ahn, Benjamin Maurer, Colin McMillen e David Abrahamet Manuel Blum, reCAPTCHA: Human-based character recognition via Web security measures, “Science”, vol. 321, n. 5895, 2008, pp. 1465- 1468.

73 Ibid.

5. Il lavoro sociale in rete

1 Lev Grossman, You – yes you – are Time’s person of the year, “Time”, 13 dicembre 2006, http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1570810,00.html.

2 David Weinberger, Rick Levine, Christopher Locke e Doc Searls, Cluetrain Manifesto: The End of Business as Usual, New York, Basic Books, 2000.

3 Alice Marwick e Danah Boyd, “To see and be seen: Celebrity practice on Twitter”, “Convergence”, vol. 1, n. 7, 2011, pp. 125-137.

4 Alvin Toffler, Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth, and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century, New York, Bantam, 1990.

5 Axel Bruns, From prosumer to produser: Understanding user-led content creation, comunicazione al convegno Transforming Audiences, London, 2009.

6 George Ritzer e Nathan Jurgenson, Production, consumption, prosumption: The nature of capitalism in the age of the digital “prosumer”, “Journal of Consumer Culture”, vol. 10, n. 1, 2010, pp. 13-36.

7 Mike Featherstone, Consumer Culture and Postmodernism, London, Sage, 1991.

8 Colin Campbell, The craft consumer culture: Craft and consumption in a postmodern society, “Journal of Consumer Culture”, vol. 5, n. 1, 2005, pp. 23-42.

9 Lucia Vesnić-Alujević e Maria Francesca Murru, Digital audiences’ disempowerment: Participation or free labour, “Participations: Journal of Audience & Reception Studies”, vol. 13, n. 1, 2016, pp. 422-430.

10 Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, New York, NYU Press, 2008, p. 259.

11 Christian Fuchs, Social Media: A Critical Introduction, London, Sage, 2013.

12 Dominique Cardon, “Internet par gros temps”, in D. Cardon e A. Casilli, Qu’est-ce que le digital labor?, cit., pp. 41-79.

13 Raymond Williams, Culture and Materialism, London, Verso, 2005 [1980].

14 Sut Jhally e Bill Livant, Watching as working: The valorization of audience consciousness, “Journal of Communication”, vol. 36, n. 3, 1986, pp. 124-143.

15 Tiziana Terranova, Free labor: Producing culture for the digital economy, “Social Text”, vol. 18, n. 2, 2000, pp. 33-58 (33).

16 Mark Andrejevic, Personal data: Blind spot of the “affective law of value”?, “The Information Society”, vol. 31, n. 1, 2015, pp. 5-12.

17 P.J. Rey, Alienation, exploitation, and social media, “American Behavioral Scientist”, vol. 56, n. 4, 2012, pp. 399-420 (415).

18 Sacha Wunsch-Vincent e Graham Vickery, Participative Web: User-created content (working party on the information economy), Rapporto Oecd Dsti/Iccp/Ie 2006, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/14/38393115.pdf.

19 Mark Andrejevic, Social network exploitation, in Zizi Papachaissi (a cura di), A Networked Self: Identity, Community, and Culture on Social Network Sites, New York, Routledge, 2011, pp. 82-101 (86).

20 Terms of service, Facebook, 19 aprile 2018, https://www.facebook.com/terms.php.

21 Christian Fuchs e Sebastian Sevignani, What is digital labour? What is digital work? What’s their difference? And why do these questions matter for understanding social media?, “tripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique”, vol. 11, n. 2, 2013, pp. 237-293.

22 Ivi, p. 287.

23 Trebor Scholz, Introduction: Why digital labor matters now?, in Id. (a cura di), Digital Labor: The Internet as Playground and Factory, New York, Routledge, 2012, p. 2.

24 Ivi, p. 4.

25 Robert Gehl, Reverse Engineering Social Media: Software, Culture, and Political Economy in New Media Capitalism, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 2014.

26 Adam Arvidsson e Elanor Colleoni, Value in informational capitalism and on the Internet, “Information Society”, vol. 28, n. 3, 2012, pp. 135-150.

27 Paolo Virno, Quelques notes à propos du general intellect, “Futur antérieur”, n. 10, 1992, pp. 45-53.

28 Howard Rheingold, Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution, New York, Basic Books, 2002

29 Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2006.

30 Clay Shirky, Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age, New York, The Penguin Press, 2010.

31 Patrice Flichy, Le Sacre de l’amateur. Sociologie des passions ordinaires à l’ère numérique, Paris, Seuil/La République des idées, 2010, p. 90.

32 Charles Leadbeater e Paul Miller, The Pro-Am Revolution: How Enthusiasts Are Changing Our Economy and Society, London, Demos, 2004.

33 Patrice Flichy, Le digital labor, un amateurisme heureux ou un travail qui s’ignore?, “Ina Global”, 21 gennaio 2016, https://www.inaglobal.fr/numerique/article/le-digital-labor-un-amateurisme-heureux-ou-un-travail-qui-s-ignore-8737.

34 D. Cardon, Internet par gros temps, cit., p. 59.

35 C. Fuchs e S. Sevignani, What is digital labour?, cit.

36 Xavier Ochoa e Erik Duval, Relevance ranking metrics for learning objects, “Ieee Transactions on Learning Technologies”, vol. 1, n. 1, 2008, pp. 34-48; Jakob Nielsen, Participation inequality: Encouraging more users to contribute, “Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox”, newsletter n. 9, 2006.

37 Charlene Li, Josh Bernoff, Sarah Glass e Remy Fiorentino, Social technographics: Mapping participation in activities forms the foundation of a social strategy, “Forrester Report”, 19 aprile 2007, https://www.forrester.com/go?docid=42057.

38 Irène Bastard, Dominique Cardon, Raphaël Charbey, Christophe Prieur e Jean-Philippe Cointet, Facebook, pour quoi faire? Configurations d’activités et structures relationnelles, “Sociologie”, vol. 8, n. 1, 2017, pp. 57-82.

39 José Van Dijck, Users like you? Theorizing agency in user- generated content, “Media Culture Society”, vol. 31, n. 1, 2009, pp. 41-58.

40 Ivi, pp. 49-50.

41 Sharif Mowlabocus, Porno 2.0? La centralité de l’utilisateur dans la nouvelle industrie du porno en ligne, in Florian Vörös (a cura di), Cultures pornographiques. Anthologie des porn studies, Paris, Éditions Amsterdam, 2015, pp. 225-248.

42 Bonnie Ruberg, Doing it for free: Digital labour and the fantasy of amateur online pornography, “Porn Studies”, vol. 3, n. 2, 2016, pp. 147-159.

43 Detlev Zwick, Samuel K. Bonsu e Aron Darmody, Putting consumers to work: “Co-creation” and new marketing govern-mentality, “Journal of Consumer Culture”, vol. 8, n. 2, 2008, pp. 163-196; John Banks e Sal Humphreys, The labour of user co-creators: Emergent social network markets?, “Convergence”, vol. 14, n. 4, 2008, pp. 401-418 (412).

44 Lisa Margonelli, Inside AOL’s “cyber-sweatshop”, “Wired”, ottobre 1999, https://www.wired.com/1999/10/volunteers/.

45 Eric Goldman, Court says yelp reviewers aren’t employees, “Forbes”, 17 agosto 2015, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ericgoldman/2015/08/17/court-says-yelp-reviewers-arent-employees/.

46 Stranded, “Few words about Valve’s employee (head admin and creator of Sts)”, SteamUnpowered, 9 febbraio 2016, https://steamunpowered.eu/few-words-about-valves-employee/.

47 How a whole language of the Steam translation server was shut down – and why it’s important to you, Rebrn, 9 febbraio 2016, http://rebrn.com/re/how-a-whole-language-of-the-steam-translation-server-was-shut-do-2404661/.

48 Ed Pilkington, Huffington Post bloggers lose legal fight for Aol millions, “The Guardian”, 1 aprile 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/apr/01/huffington-post-bloggers-aol-millions.

49 Wendy Davis, YouTube sued by Zombie Go Boom over “brand-safe” ad policies, “Media Post”, 14 luglio 2017, https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/304353/youtube-sued-by-zombie-go-boom-over-brand-safe-a.html?edition=104242.

50 Doreen St. Felix, Black teens are breaking the Internet and seeing none of the profits, “Fader”, 3 dicembre 2015, https://www.thefader.com/2015/12/03/on-fleek-peaches-monroee-meechie-viral-vines.

51 Taylor Lorenz, Inside the secret meeting that changed the fate of Vine forever, Mic, 29 ottobre 2016, https://mic.com/articles/157977/inside-the-secret-meeting-that-changed-the-fate-of-vine-forever.

52 Alex Kantrowitz, Vine stars want to be paid, and Twitter is considering it, “Buzz­Feed”, 15 marzo 2016, https://www.buzzfeed.com/alexkantrowitz/twitter-in-discussions-with-top-vine-creators-about-payment.

53 Mathew Ingram, Twitter rolls out new program to share revenue with video creators, “Fortune”, 30 agosto 2016, http://fortune.com/2016/08/30/twitter-video-revenue/.

54 Maya Kosoff, The inside story of Vine’s demise, “Vanity Fair”, 28 ottobre 2016, http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2016/10/what-happened-to-vine.

55 Nel 2002, i contributori della versione spagnola di Wikipedia hanno indetto uno sciopero per protestare contro l’introduzione di pubblicità. Di fronte alla resistenza del fondatore Jimmy Wales, decidono di entrare in dissidenza creando la Enciclopedia Libre Universal en Español. ll progetto secessionista viene abbandonato quando i dirigenti della Wikimedia Foundation cedono alle rivendicazioni e decidono di adottare un’estensione di dominio in .org e non in .com, nonché di finanziare il progetto con le donazioni degli utenti invece che basandosi sul modello pubblicitario. R. Gehl, Reverse Engineering Social Media, cit., p. 119.

56 Antonio A. Casilli, Le wikipédien, le chercheur et le vandale, in Lionel Barbe, Louise Merzeau e Valérie Schafer (a cura di), Wikipédia, objet scientifique non identifié, Paris, Presses universitaires de Paris Ouest, 2015, pp. 91-104.

57 Il Facebook AI Research (Fair) Lab, laboratorio di ricerca specializzato nel deep learning, si serve di FastText, una biblioteca di codici di riconoscimento e classificazione di testi riuniti in vettori multilinguistici. Questi vettori sono stati addestrati sugli articoli in diverse lingue di Wikipedia, che serve da banca di esempi per classificare le parole e “insegnare a leggere” alle IA di Facebook. Si veda Piotr Bojanowski, Edouard Grave, Armand Joulin e Tomas Mikolov, En­riching word vectors with subword information, Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, vol. 5, n. 1, 2017, pp. 135-146.

58 Barry Schwartz, Google’s Freebase to close after migrating to Wikidata: Knowledge graph impact?, “Search Engine Roundtable”, 17 dicembre 2014, https://www.seroundtable.com/google-freebase-wikidata-knowledge-graph-19591.html.

59 Caitlin Dewey, You don’t know it, but you’re working for Facebook. For free, “The Washington Post”, 22 luglio 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2015/07/22/you-dont-know-it-but-youre-working-for-facebook-for-free/.

60 Hexatekin (pseud. Dorothy Howard), Wikipedia: Thoughts on Wikipedia editing and digital labor, Wikipedia, 19 aprile 2014, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Thoughts_on_Wikipedia_Editing_and_Digital_Labor.

61 Arwid Lund e Juhana Venäläinen, Monetary materialities of peer-produced knowledge: The case of Wikipedia and its tensions with paid labour, “tripleC”, vol. 14, n. 1, 2016, pp. 78-98.

62 José Van Dijck e Hector Postigo, Emerging sources of labor on the Internet: The case of America online volunteers, “International Review of Social History”, vol. 48, n. 1, 2003, pp. 205-223.

63 Kathleen Kuehn e Thomas F. Corrigan, Hope labor: The role of employment prospects in online social production, “The Political Economy of Communication”, vol. 1, n. 1, 2013, pp. 9-25.

64 Mark R. Johnson e Jamie Woodcock, “It’s like the gold rush”: The lives and careers of professional video game streamers on Twitch.tv, “Information, Communication & Society”, vol. 22, n. 3, pp. 336-351.

65 Andrew Ross, The mental labor problem, “Social Text”, vol. 18, n. 2, 2000, pp. 1-32.

66 Aaron Smith, Searching for work in the digital era, Pew Research Center Internet & Technology, 19 novembre 2015, https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/11/19/searching-for-work-in-the-digital-era//.

67 Lara Farrar, Cell phone stories writing new chapter in print publishing, “Cnn”, 26 febbraio 2009, http://edition.cnn.com/2009/TECH/02/25/japan.mobilenovels/.

68 Gabriella Lukacs, Dreamwork: Cell phone novelists, labor, and politics in contemporary Japan, “Cultural Anthropology”, vol. 28, n. 1, 2013, pp. 44-64.

69 Emma Fourati, Regards croisés sur les usages problématiques du smart­phone dans la société française, Tesi magistrale, Études culturelles, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne, 2013.

70 Jean-François Bach, Olivier Houdé, Pierre Léna e Serge Tisseron, L’Enfant et les écrans. Un avis de l’Académie des sciences, Paris, Le Pommier, 2013.

71 Antonio A. Casilli, Fracture numérique, in Alain Bihr e Roland Pfefferkorn (a cura di), Dictionnaire des inégalités, Paris, Armand Colin, 2014, pp. 172-173.

72 Eszter Hargittai, Digital na(t)ives? Variation in Internet skills and uses among members of the “Net generation”, “Sociological Inquiry”, vol. 80, n. 1, 2010, pp. 92-113.

73 Laura Robinson, A taste for the necessary: A Bourdieuian approach to digital inequality, “Information, Communication & Society”, vol. 12, n. 4, 2009, pp. 488-507.

74 Naomi Schaefer Riley, America’s real digital divide, “The New York Times”, 11 febbraio 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/11/opinion/america-digital-divide.html.

75 Sophie Jehel, Hyperconnexion des adolescents: une initiation au digital labor, comunicazione al convegno dell’Aislf, Montréal 2016, https://enfants-medias.cemea.asso.fr/IMG/pdf/S_Jehel_les_ados_et_le_digital_labor_Actes_AISLF_CR33_2016_Montreal_.pdf.

76 Danah Boyd, It’s Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2015.

77 S. Jehel, Hyperconnexion des adolescents, cit., p. 52.

78 Francis Jaureguiberry, La déconnexion aux technologies de communication, “Réseaux”, n. 186, 2014, pp. 15-49.

79 Nicole Auber, Hyperformance et combustion de soi, “Études”, t. 405, n. 10, 2006, pp. 339-351.

80 Get more rewards points with Microsoft Edge, Bing, 2017, http://www.bing.com/explore/rewards-browse-and-earn.

81 Matt Burgess, Microsoft is now “paying” UK users to ditch Google and search with Bing, “Wired”, 31 maggio 2017, http://www.wired.co.uk/article/microsoft-rewards-uk-bing.

82 Casey Johnston, Google paying users to track 100 % of their Web usage via little black box, “ArsTechnica”, 8 febbraio 2012, https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/02/google-paying-users-to-track-100-of-their-web-usage-via-little-black-box/.

83 Earn bitcoin by replying to emails and completing tasks, “Earn”, https://earn.com/.

84 Klint Finley, Facebook is blocking an upstart rival – But it’s complicated, “Wired”, 11 novembre 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/11/facebook-banning-tsu-rival-social-network/.

85 M. Andrejevic, Personal data: Blind spot of the “affective law of value”?, cit.

86 R. Gehl, Reverse Engineering Social Media, cit., p. 118.

87 Claire Wardle, Sam Dubberley e Pete Brown, Amateur footage: A global study of user-generated content in tv and online news output, New York, Columbia University School of Journalism, Tow Center for Digital Journalism, 2014, http://towcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Tow-Center-Amateur-Footage-A-Global-Study-of-User-Generated-Content- in-TV-and-Online-News-Output.pdf.

88 Emanuel Maiberg, Whoa, Valve just monetized mods, “Motherboard”, 23 aprile 2015, https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/jp5n4p/whoa-valve-just-monetized-mods.

89 Start selling with Vimeo on demand, Vimeo Help Center, 2016, https://help.vimeo.com/hc/en-us/articles/235764787-Start-selling-with-Vimeo-On-Demand.

90 Kurt Wagner, How Facebook is using your photos in ads, “Mashable”, 5 settembre 2013, https://mashable.com/2013/09/05/facebook-ads-photo/.

91 Paul Monckton, Photographers angered by Flickr wall art profits, “Forbes”, 26 novembre 2014, https://www.forbes.com/sites/paulmonckton/2014/11/26/flickr-sells-creative-commons-photos/.

92 Steven Englehardt, No boundaries: Exfiltration of personal data by session-replay scripts, “Freedom To Tinker”, 15 novembre 2017, https://freedom-to-tinker.com/2017/11/15/no-boundaries-exfiltration-of-personal-data-by-session-replay-scripts/.

93 Dominique Cardon, Regarder les données, “Multitudes”, n. 49, 2012, pp. 138-142 (139).

94 Personal data: The emergence of a new asset class, Genève, World Economic Forum, 2013, http://www.weforum.org/reports/personal-data-emergence-new-asset-class; Christopher Soghoian, The Spies We Trust: Third Party Service Providers and Law Enforcement Surveillance, tesi di dottorato in informatica, Indiana University, Department of Computer Science, 2012.

95 Alessandro Acquisti, The economics of personal data and the economics of privacy, Oecd Roundtable on The Economics of Privacy and Personal Data, Paris, 2010.

96 Olivia Solon, How much data did Facebook have on one man? 1,200 pages of data in 57 categories, “Wired”, 28 dicembre 2012, http://www.wired.co.uk/article/privacy-versus-facebook.

97 Judith Duportail, I asked Tinder for my data. It sent me 800 pages of my deepest, darkest secrets, “The Guardian”, 26 settembre 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/sep/26/tinder-personal-data-dating-app-messages-hacked-sold.

98 In che modo Google utilizza il riconoscimento di pattern per comprendere le immagini, “Google privacy e termini”, 30 maggio 2018, https://www.google.fr/intl/fr/policies/technologies/pattern-recognition/.

99 Laurent Gille, Aux sources de la valeur. Des biens et des liens, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2006.

100 M. Andrejevic, Social network exploitation, cit.

101 Lukasz Olejnik, Tran Minh-Dung e Claude Castelluccia, Selling off privacy at auction, relazione al Network and Distributed System Security (Ndss) Symposium, San Diego, 23-26 febbraio 2014.

102 Courtney Kettmann, Is a Facebook “like” worth $174?? Probably not, “Wired”, 1° luglio 2013, https://www.wired.com/insights/2013/07/is-a-facebook-like-worth-174-probably-not/.

103 Drake Bennett, How much is a tweet worth?, “Bloomberg”, 10 aprile 2012, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-04-10/how-much-is-a-tweet-worth.

104 Marc Graser, How much is a tweet worth to Hollywood? $560 at the box office, “Variety”, 27 febbraio 2015, http://variety.com/2015/digital/news/the-power-of-twitter-on-a-movies-box-office-and-why-its-not-what-you-might-expect-1201442361/.

105 Alexander R. Galloway, Protocol: How Control Exists after Decentralization, Cambridge, Mit Press, 2004; J. Van Dijck, Users like you?, cit.

106 Dominique Pasquier, Valérie Baudoin e Thomas Legon, “Moi, je lui donne 5/5”. Paradoxes de la critique amateur en ligne, Paris, Presses de l’École des Mines, 2014.

107 Sergiu Viorel Chelaru, Claudia Orellana-Rodriguez e Ismail Sengor Altingovde, Can social features help learning to rank YouTube videos?, Proceedings of the Web Information Systems Engineering – Wise 2012, Heidelberg, Springer, 2012, pp. 552-566.

108 Annika Richterich, “Karma, precious Karma!” Karmawhoring on Reddit and the front page’s econometrisation, “Journal of Peer Production”, n. 4, 2014, http://peerproduction.net/issues/issue-4-value-and-currency/peer-reviewed-articles/karma-precious-karma/.

109 Dmitry Davidov, Oren Tsur e Ari Rappoport, Enhanced sentiment learning using Twitter hashtags and smileys, Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics: Posters (Coling ’10), Stroudsburg, Association for Computational Linguistics, 2010, pp. 241-249.

110 Camille Alloing, La E-réputation. cit.

111 Chad Edwards, Patric R. Spence, Christina J. Gentile, America Edwards e Autumn Edwards, How much klout do you have… A test of system generated cues on source credibility, “Computers in Human Behavior”, vol. 29, n. 5, 2013, pp. A12-A16.

112 Cléo Collomb, Igor Galligo e Filipe Pais, Les algorithmes du désir: enquête sur le design libidinal de Tinder, “Sciences du Design”, vol. 2, n. 4, 2016, pp. 117-123.

113 Charles Li, Devising a framework for efficient and accurate match-making and real-time web communication, Technical Report TR2016-798, Dartmouth College, Hanover, 2016, http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/ reports/TR2016-798-rev2.pdf.

114 C. Alloing e J. Pierre, Le Web affectif, cit.

115 Danah Boyd, Untangling research and practice: What Facebook’s “emotional contagion” study teaches us, “Research Ethics”, vol. 12, n. 1, 2015, pp. 4-13.

116 Facebook editor community, “Facebook”, 2017, https://www.facebook.com/editorcommunity/.

117 Share Lab, Immaterial Labour and Data Harvesting – Facebook Algorithmic Factory (1), 21 agosto 2016, https://labs.rs/en/facebook-algorithmic-factory-immaterial-labour-and-data-harvesting/.

118 Solutions Explorer, “Facebook Business”, 2018, https://www.facebook.com/business/solutions-explorer/campaign_management/.

119 Edith Ramirez, Julie Brill, Maureen K. Ohlhausen, Joshua D. Wright, e Terrell McSweeny, Data brokers: A call for transparency and accountability, rapporto della Federal Trade Commission, 2014, https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/data-brokers-call-transparency-accountability-report-federal-trade-commission-may-2014/140527databrokerreport.pdf.

120 Yann LeCun, Deep learning, comunicazione al convegno USI 2015, Paris, https://youtu.be/RgUcQceqC_Y.

121 Yann LeCun, Qu’est-ce que l’intelligence artificielle?, cattedra Recherches sur l’intelligence artificielle, informatique et sciences numériques (2015-2016), Collège de France, https://www.college-de-france.fr/media/yann-lecun/UPL4485925235409209505_Intelligence_Artificielle_Y._LeCun.pdf.

122 Alexia Tsotsis, Facebook scoops up Face.com for $55-60M to bolster its facial recognition tech (updated), “TechCrunch”, 18 giugno 2012, https://techcrunch.com/2012/06/18/facebook-scoops-up-face-com-for-100m-to-bolster-its-facial-recognition-tech/.

123 Josh Constine, Facebook’s facial recognition now finds photos you’re untagged in, “TechCrunch”, 19 dicembre 2017, https://techcrunch.com/2017/12/19/facebook-facial-recognition-photos/.

124 Jérôme Marin, Instagram se convertit au e-commerce, “Le Monde”, 7 novembre 2016, http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2016/11/07/ instagram-se-convertit-au-e-commerce_5026620_3234.html.

125 Luis von Ahn, Duolingo: Learn a language for free while helping to translate the Web, Iui ’13: Proceedings of the 2013 international conference on Intelligent user interfaces, New York, Acm, 2013, pp. 1-2.

126 Parul Goliani, Duolingo looks to dominate the mobile education market with new flashcard app TinyCards, “Forbes”, 22 luglio 2016, http://www.forbes.com/sites/parulguliani/2016/07/22/duolingo-looks-to-dominate-the-mobile-education-market-with-new-flashcard-app/.

127 Matthias Eck, Yury Zemlyanskiy, Joy Zhang e Alex Waibel, Extracting translation pairs from social network content, comunicazione all’11th International Workshop on Spoken Language Translation, 4 dicembre 2014, http://workshop2014.iwslt.org/downloads/Facebook.pdf.

128 x.ai AI assistants now on your domain for MS Office 365 customers, comunicato stampa PR Newswire, 23 gennaio 2018, https://x.ai/blog/x-ai-ai-assistants-now-on-your-domain-for-ms-office-365-customers/.

129 Chatbot vendor directory released, comunicato stampa Hypergrid Business, 27 ottobre 2011, http://www.hypergridbusiness.com/2011/10/chatbot-vendor-directory-released.

130 Messenger, “Facebook Business”, 2017, https://www.facebook.com/business/products/messenger-for-business.

131 Mai-Hanh Nguyen, AI driven adult chatbots are being used for virtual boyfriends and girlfriends – and they keep getting smarter and sexier, “Business Insider”, 29 novembre 2017, http://www.businessinsider.fr/us/virtual-friend-dirty-talking-adult-chatbots-2017-11/.

132 Gina Neff e Peter Nagy, Talking to bots: Symbiotic agency and the case of tay, “International Journal of Communication”, vol. 10, 2016, pp. 4915-4931; Morgane Tual, Le très bref retour de Tay, l’intelligence artificielle controversée de Microsoft, “Le Monde”, 30 marzo 2016, http://www.lemonde.fr/pixels/article/2016/03/30/le-tres-bref-retour-de-tay-l-in-telligence-artificielle-controversee-de-microsoft_4892488_4408996.html.

133 Nanette George, People make AI-powered virtual assistants more human, “CloudFactory Blog”, 31 ottobre 2017, https://blog.cloudfactory.com/people-powered-ai-virtual-assistants.

134 Erin Griffith e Tom Simonite, Facebook’s virtual assistant M is dead. So are chatbots, “Wired” 8 gennaio 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/facebooks-virtual-assistant-m-is-dead-so-are-chatbots/.

135 ClickHappier, Google-affiliated requesters master list (Sergey Schmidt, Project Endor, and way too many more), “Forum MTurk Crowd”, 12 gennaio 2016, http://www.mturkcrowd.com/threads/google-affiliated-requesters-master-list-sergey-schmidt-project-endor-and-way-too-many-more.1958/.

136 Simon Paye, Postface. “Un travail de fourmi”, in Pierre-Michel Menger e Simon Paye (a cura di), Big data et traçabilité numérique. Les sciences sociales face à la quantification massive des individus, Paris, Collège de France, 2017, pp. 185-215.

137 Michael Nunez, Former facebook workers: We routinely suppressed conservative news, “Gizmodo”, 9 maggio 2016, https://gizmodo.com/former-facebook-workers-we-routinely-suppressed-conser-1775461006.

138 Sam Thielman, Facebook fires trending team, and algorithm without humans goes crazy, “The Guardian”, 29 agosto 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/aug/29/facebook-fires- trending-topics-team-algorithm.

139 Richard Nieva, Facebook dumps personalized trending topics after backlash, “Cnet”, 25 gennaio 2017, https://www.cnet.com/news/facebook-changes-trending-topics-section-after-backlash/.

140 Adam Mosseri, Addressing hoaxes and fake news, “Facebook Newsroom”, 15 dicembre 2016, https://about.fb.com/news/2016/12/news-feed-fyi-addressing-hoaxes-and-fake-news//.

141 Benjamin Mullin e Alexios Mantzarlis, Facebook has a plan to fight fake news: Here’s where we come in, “Poynter”, 15 dicembre 2016, http://www.poynter.org/2016/facebook-has-a-plan-to-fight-fake-news-heres-where-we-come-in/442649/; Kaveh Waddell, Should Facebook buy Snopes?, “The Atlantic”, 11 novembre 2016, https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/11/should-facebook-buy-snopes/507359/; Andrew Anker, Sara Su e Jeff Smith, New test to provide context about articles, “Facebook Newsroom”, 5 ottobre 2017, https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2017/10/news-feed-fyi-new-test-to-provide-context-about-articles/.

142 Locations, “Ccc”, 2017, https://www.yourccc.com/en/locations.

143 Craig Silverman, Here’s why it doesn’t matter if people trust Facebook’s fake news label in the news feed, “BuzzFeed”, 14 settembre 2017, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/its-all-about-the-data-and-algorithms.

144 Sarah T. Roberts, Commercial content moderation: Digital laborers’ dirty work, in Brendesha M. Tynes e Safiya Umoja Noble (a cura di), The Intersectional Internet: Race, Sex, Class and Culture, New York, Peter Lang, 2016, pp. 147-160.

145 Feliz Solomon, Microsoft is being sued by online moderators, who say watching violent images gave them Ptsd, “Time”, 12 gennaio 2017, https://time.com/4632504/microsoft-ptsd-online-moderators-%20child-abuse-violence//; Olivia Solon, Facebook is hiring moderators. But is the job too gruesome to handle?, “The Guardian”, 4 maggio 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/04/facebook- content-moderators-ptsd-psychological-dangers.

146 Sarah T. Roberts, Digital refuse: Canadian garbage, commercial content moderation and the global circulation of social media’s waste, “Media Studies Publications”, Paper 14, 2016, http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/commpub/14.

147 Nikos Smyrnaios e Emmanuel Marty, Profession “nettoyeur du net”. De la modération des commentaires sur les sites d’information, “Réseaux”, n. 205, 2017, pp. 57-90 (86).

148 “Basically what you have to is to judge the data.” Ciaran Cassidy e Adrian Chen, The Moderators, cortometraggio, Field of Vision, 2017, https://vimeo.com/213152344.

149 Growing our trusted flagger program into YouTube heroes, “Youtube Official Blog”, 22 settembre 2016, https://youtube.googleblog.com/2016/09/growing-our-trusted-flagger-program.html.

150 Get involved with YouTube contributors, “Google Support”, 2018, https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7124236.

151 Davey Alba, The hidden laborers training AI to keep ads off hateful YouTube videos, “Wired”, 21 aprile 2017, https://www.wired.com/2017/04/zerochaos-google-ads-quality-raters.

152 Jack Nicas, YouTube subjecting all “preferred” content to human review, “The Wall Street Journal”, 16 gennaio 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/youtube-subjecting-all-preferred-content-to-human- review-1516143751.

153 S.T. Roberts, Commercial content moderation, cit.

154 Get paid to write from Home, “Writers Domain”, 2018, https://www.writersdomain.net/.

155 Quality content when you need it, “The Content Authority”, 2018, http://thecontentauthority.com/.

156 TextBroker, per esempio, propone fieramente tariffe tra gli 0,7 e i 5 centesimi a parola. I lavoratori di MyAMS possono arrivare a 13,20 dollari orari (ovvero la metà del tasso orario dei lavoratori del settore privato negli Stati Uniti, 24,86 dollari). Ma questi guadagni non possono essere ottenuti se non scrivendo decine di migliaia di parole al giorno. Evidentemente, tale cifra non tiene in considerazione i ritmi di lavoro e la volatilità delle mansioni su queste piattaforme. Si veda Chris Stokel-Walker, True confessions: I wrote for an Internet content mill, “ArsTechnica”, 13 luglio 2015, https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/07/inside-an-online-content-mill-or-writing-4156-words-a-day-just-to-earn-lunch-money/.

157 Charles Arthur, How low-paid workers at “click farms” create appearance of online popularity, “The Guardian”, 2 agosto 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/aug/02/click-farms-appearance-online-popularity.

158 V. Lehdonvirta e M. Ernkvist, Converting the virtual economy into development potential, cit.

159 Yuli Liu, Yiqun Liu, Min Zhang e Shaoping Ma, Pay me and I’ll follow you: Detection of crowdturfing following activities in microblog environment, Proceedings of the 25th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI2016), Palo Alto, Aaai Press/International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence, 2016, pp. 3789-3796.

160 Liang Wu e Huan Liu, Detecting crowdturfing in social media, in Reda Alhajj e Jon Rokne (a cura di), Encyclopedia of Social Network Analysis and Min­­ing, New York, Springer, 2016, pp. 1-9.

161 Ming Lim, Why many click farm jobs should be understood as digital slavery, “The Conversation”, 17 gennaio 2018, http://theconversation.com/why-many-click-farm-jobs-should-be-understood-as-digital-slavery-83530.

162 Associated Press, Inside a click farm that helps fake online popularity, “New York Post”, 13 giugno 2017; Bradley Jolly, The bizarre “click farm” of 10,000 phones that give fake “likes” to our most-loved apps, “The Mirror”, 15 maggio 2017, https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/bizarre-click-farm-10000-phones-10419403.

163 Marti Motoyama, Damon McCoy, Kirill Levchenko, Stefan Savage e Geoffrey M. Voelker, Dirty jobs: The role of freelance labor in Web service abuse, Proceedings of the 20th Usenix Conference on Security, Berkeley, Usenix Association, 2011, pp. 4-14.

164 Gang Wang et al., Serf and turf, cit.

165 Matthias Hirth, Tobias Hoßfeld e Phuoc Tran-Gia, Anatomy of a crowdsourcing platform – Using the example of Microworkers.com, Fifth International Conference on Innovative Mobile and Internet Services in Ubiquitous Computing, Seoul, Ieee, 2011, pp. 322-329.

166 Kyumin Lee, Prithivi Tamilarasan e James Caverlee, Crowdturfers, campaigns, and social media: Tracking and revealing crowdsourced manipulation of social media, Proceedings of the Seventh International Aaai Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, 2013, pp. 331-340.

167 Nicole Perlroth, Fake Twitter followers become multimillion-dollar business, “New York Times”, Bits, 5 aprile 2013, https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/04/05/fake-twitter-followers-becomes-multimillion-dollar-business/; Charles Arthur, Facebook spammers make $200m just posting links, researchers say, “The Guardian”, 28 agosto 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/aug/28/facebook- spam-202-million-italian-research.

168 mCent 2.0 – Download apps, test them, and earn money, UpToDown, 9 maggio 2017, https://mcent.uptodown.com/.

169 Parmy Olson, This app is cashing in on giving the world free data, “Forbes”, 29 luglio 2015, https://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2015/07/29/jana-mobile-data-facebook-internet-org/.

170 Comunicato Stampa, Jana mobile receives $15 million strategic investment from Publicis groupe – Maurice Lévy to join Jana board of directors, “Publicis Group”, 15 luglio 2013, http://www.publicisgroupe.com/download/cccd63a2dd75d56d1277342bb4166627.

171 Dave Lee, Instagram deletes millions of accounts in spam purge, “Bbc News”, 19 dicembre 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-30548463.

172 Karen Gullo e Peter Burrows, Microsoft sues over online advertising “click fraud”, “Bloomberg”, 20 maggio 2010, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-05-19/microsoft-sues-web-site-over-new-form-of-online-advertising-click-fraud-.

173 Stephanie Clifford, Microsoft sues three in click-fraud scheme, “The New York Times”, 15 giugno 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/16/business/media/16adco.html.

174 Fake likes put Facebook in hot water with advertisers, “Marketsmith”, 21 febbraio 2014, https://www.marketsmithinc.com/fake-likes-put-facebook-hot-water-advertisers/; Jim Edwards, Here are the sealed court papers on “invalid clicks” Facebook doesn’t want you to see, “Business Insider”, 5 novembre 2012, http://www.businessinsider.fr/us/facebook-advertisers-invalid-click-class-action-lawsuit-2012-10.

175 Measure and improve business page promotions, “Facebook Business”, 2018, https://www.facebook.com/business/help/249469901849237.

176 Emiliano De Cristofaro, Arik Friedman, Guillaume Jourjon, Mohamed Ali Kaafar e M. Zubair Shafiq, Paying for likes? Understanding Facebook like fraud using honeypots, Imc ’14: Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Internet Measurement Conference, New York, Acm, 2014, pp. 129-136; Rory Cellan-Jones, Who “likes” my virtual bagels?, “Bbc News”, 13 luglio 2012, http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-18819338; Veritasium, Facebook fraud, “YouTube”, 10 febbraio 2014, https://youtube/oVfHeWTKjag; Marcela De Vivo, Is paying for likes on Facebook worth it?, “Search Engine Journal”, 11 febbraio 2014, https://www.searchenginejournal.com/paying-likes-facebook-worth-case-study-search-engine- journal-exclusive/88111/.

177 Prudhvi Ratna Badri Satya, Fake Likers Detection on Facebook, tesi di master, Utah State University, paper 4961, 2016.

178 Antonio A. Casilli, La plateformisation comme mise au travail des usagers. Digital labor et nouvelles inégalités planétaires, in Nicole Alix, Jean-Louis Bancel, Benjamin Coriat e Frédéric Sultan (a cura di), Vers une république des biens communs?, Paris, Les Liens qui libèrent, 2018, pp. 41-56.

179 Julia Carrie Wong, Facebook overhauls News Feed in favor of “meaningful social interactions”, “The Guardian”, 12 gennaio 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jan/11/facebook-news-feed-algorithm-overhaul-mark-zuckerberg.

180 Seb Joseph, “Organic reach on Facebook is dead”: Advertisers expect price hikes after Facebook’s feed purge, “Digiday”, 15 gennaio 2018, https://digiday.com/marketing/organic-reach-facebook-dead-advertisers-will-spend-reach-facebooks-feed-purge/.

181 Business page promotions, “Facebook”, 30 maggio 2018, https://www.facebook.com/business/help/547448218658012.

182 M. De Vivo, Is paying for likes on Facebook worth it?, cit.

183 Veritasium, Facebook fraud, cit.

6. Lavoro extralavoro

1 M.-A. Dujarier, Le Travail du consommateur, cit.

2 Ursula Huws, The future of work: Neither utopias nor dystopias but new fields of accumulation and struggle, “Transform! Europe”, 21 febbraio 2017, https://www.transform-network.net/en/publications/yearbook/overview/article/yearbook-2017/the-future-of-work-neither-utopias-nor-dystopias-but-new-fields-of-accumulation-and-struggle/.

3 Ibid.

4 Robert M. Bauer e Thomas Gegenhuber, Crowdsourcing: Global search and the twisted roles of consumers and producers, “Organization”, vol. 22, n. 5, 2015, pp. 661-681.

5 Gérard Valenduc e Patricia Vendramin, Le travail dans l’économie digitale: continuités et ruptures, Fondation Travail-Université (Ftu), 2016, https://www.etui.org/fr/Publications2/Working-Papers/Le-travail-dans-l-economie-digitale-continuites-et-ruptures.

6 Le continuità tra lavoro domestico e lavoro sulle piattaforme sono state esaminate di recente da autrici femministe e in diversi numeri delle riviste internazionali dedicate al tema: “Gender and digital labor”, numero tematico della rivista “First Monday”, vol. 23, n. 3-5, 2018 “Digital Labour”, numero tematico della rivista “Feminist Review”, vol. 123, n. 1, 2019.

7 Kylie Jarrett, Feminism, Labour and Digital Media: The Digital Housewife, London, Routledge, 2015.

8 Roopika Risam, Diversity work and digital carework in higher education, “First Monday”, vol. 23, n. 3-5, 2018, http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/8241/6651.

9 Morgan G. Ames, Janet Go, Joseph “Jofish” Kaye e Mirjana Spasojevic, Making love in the network closet: The benefits and work of family videochat, Cscw ’10: Proceedings of the 2010 Acm Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, New York, Acm, 2010, pp. 145-154.

10 Amanda Menking e Ingrid Erickson, The heart work of Wikipedia: Gendered, emotional labor in the world’s largest online encyclopedia, Chi ’15: Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Acm Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, Acm, 2015, pp. 207-210.

11 Mariarosa Dalla Costa e Selma James, The Power of Women and the Subversion of Community, Bristol, Falling Wall Press, 1972; Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work For Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth To The Microwave, New York, Basic Books, 1985, p. 210; Kylie Jarrett, The relevance of “women’s work”: Social reproduction and immaterial labor in digital media, “Television & New Media”, vol. 15, n. 1, 2014, pp. 14-29.

12 Brooke Erin Duffy, Amateur, autonomous, collaborative: Myths of aspiring female cultural producers in Web 2.0, “Critical Studies in Media Communication”, vol. 23, n. 1, 2015, pp. 48-64.

13 Giovanna Franca Dalla Costa, The Work of Love: Unpaid Housework, Poverty & Sexual Violence at the Dawn of the 21st Century, New York, Autonomedia, 2008, p. 42.

14 Kylie Jarrett, Labour of love: An archaeology of affect as power in e-commerce, “Journal of Sociology”, vol. 34, n. 4, 2003, pp. 335-351.

15 Laurel Ptak, Wages for Facebook, installazione web, 2014, http://wagesforfacebook.com/.

16 Silvia Federici, Wages Against Housework, Bristol, Power of Women Collective and Falling Wall Press, 1975, p. 2.

17 Dallas W. Smythe, Communications: Blindspot of Western marxism, “Canadian Journal of Political and Social Theory”, vol. 1, n. 3, 1977, pp. 1-27.

18 La nozione di economia dell’attenzione, sviluppata da principio da Herbert Simon (Designing organizations for an information-rich world, in Martin Greenberger (a cura di), Computers, Communication, and the Public Interest, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1971, pp. 40-41) è stata in tempi più recenti collegata ai modelli economici delle piattaforme digitali da Emmanuel Kessous (L’Attention au monde. Sociologie des données personnelles à l’ère numérique, Paris, Armand Colin, 2012) e reintrerpetata in una prospettiva critica da Yves Citton (Pour une écologie de l’attention, Paris, Seuil, 2014).

19 Brice Nixon, Recovering audience labor from audience commodity theory: Advertising as capitalizing on the work of signification, in James F. Hamilton, Robert Bodle e Ezequiel Korin (a cura di), Explorations in Critical Studies of Advertising, New York, Routledge, 2017, pp. 42-53.

20 S. Jhally e B. Livant, Watching as working: The valorization of audience consciousness, cit.

21 Mark Andrejevic, The work of being watched: Interactive media and the exploitation of self-disclosure, “Critical Studies in Media Communication”, vol. 19, n. 2, 2002, pp. 230-248.

22 Christian Fuchs, The digital labour theory of value and Karl Marx in the age of Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, and Weibo, in Eran Fisher e Christian Fuchs (a cura di), Reconsidering Value and Labour in the Digital Age, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, pp. 26-41; Id., Dallas Smythe and digital labor, in Richard Maxwell (a cura di), Routledge Companion to Labor and Media, New York, Routledge, 2016, pp. 51-62; Ippolita, Tecnologie del dominio. Lessico minimo per l’autodifesa digitale, Milano, Meltemi Editore, 2017.

23 Theodor W. Adorno, Tempo libero (1969), in Parole chiave, Milano, SugarCo, 1974.

24 Julian Kücklich, Precarious playbour: Modders and the digital games industry, “Fibreculture Journal”, vol. 25, n. 1, 2005, http://five.fibreculturejournal.org/fcj-025-precarious-playbour-modders-and-the-digital-games-industry/.

25 Alan Chorney, Taking the game out of gamification, “Dalhousie Journal of Interdisciplinary Management”, vol. 8, n. 1, 2012.

26 Mathieu Cocq, Constitution et exploitation du capital communautaire. Le travail des streamers sur la plateforme Twitch, “La Nouvelle Revue du travail”, n. 13, 2018, http://journals.openedition.org/nrt/3911.

27 J. Kücklich, Precarious playbour, cit.

28 Mark R. Johnson e Jamie Woodcock, “It’s like the gold rush”, cit.

29 Maude Bonenfant e Sébastien Genvo, Une approche située et critique du concept de gamification, “Sciences du jeu”, n. 2, 2014, https://journals.openedition.org/sdj/286.

30 Casey O’Donnell, Getting played: Gamification, bullshit, and the rise of algorithmic surveillance, “Surveillance & Society”, vol. 12, n. 3, 2014, pp. 349-359.

31 Marianna Sigala, The application and impact of gamification funware on trip planning and experiences: The case of TripAdvisor, “Electronic Markets”, vol. 25, n. 3, 2015, pp. 189-209.

32 Laurentiu Catalin Stanculescu, Alessandro Bozzon, Robert-Jan Sips e Geert-Jan Houben, Work and play: An experiment in enterprise gamification, Cscw ’16: Proceedings of the 19th Acm Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing, New York, Acm, 2016, pp. 346-358.

33 Per un’analisi classica della tendenza dei lavoratori a ludificare le loro attività e delle imprese tradizionali a servirsene a scopi di estrazione del valore, cfr. Michael Burawoy, The labor process as a game, in Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process under Monopoly Capitalism, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1979, pp. 77–94.

34 Ayoung Suh, Christy M.K. Cheung, Manju Ahuja e Christian Wagner, Gamification in the workplace: The central role of the aesthetic experience, “Journal of Management Information Systems”, vol. 34, n. 1, 2017, pp. 268-305; Florin Oprescu, Christian Jones e Mary Katsikitis, I play at work – Ten principles for transforming work processes through gamification, “Frontiers in Psychology”, vol. 5, n. 14, 2014, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00014/full; Marie- Pierre Feuvrier, Bonheur et travail, oxymore ou piste de management stratégique de l’entreprise?, “Management & Avenir”, vol. 2, n. 68, 2014, pp. 164-182.

35 Luc Boltanski e Ève Chiapello, Il nuovo spirito del capitalismo, Milano, Mimesis, 2014.

36 Ethan R. Mollick e Nancy Rothbard, Mandatory fun: Consent, gamification and the impact of games at work, The Wharton School Research Paper Series, 2014, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2277103.

37 Ian Bogost, Exploitationware, in Richard Colby e Matthew S.S. Johnson (a cura di), Rhetoric/Composition/Play through Video Games, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp. 139-147.

38 Ritu Agarwal e Elena Karahanna, Time flies when you’re having fun: Cognitive absorption and beliefs about information technology usage, “Mis Quarterly”, vol. 24, n. 4, 2000, pp. 665-694.

39 Jonathan Crary, 24/7. Il capitalismo all’assalto del sonno, Einaudi, Torino, 2015.

40 Ivi, p. 86.

41 Maurizio Lazzarato, Lavoro immateriale. Forme di vita e produzione di soggettività, Verona, Ombre Corte, 1997, p. 69.

42 Maurizio Lazzarato, Immaterial Labor, “Generation Online”, 1997, http://www.generation-online.org/c/fcimmateriallabour3.htm.

43 Gilles Deleuze e Félix Guattari, Millepiani. Capitalismo e schizofrenia, Roma, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1987.

44 Ibid.

45 Michel Volle, De la main-d’œuvre au cerveau d’œuvre, in Pierre Musso e Alain Supiot (a cura di), Qu’est-ce qu’un régime de travail réellement humain?, Paris, Hermann, 2018, pp. 341-355.

46 Alfred Sohn-Rethel, Intellectual and Manual Labor: A Critique of Epistemology, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1978.

47 A.A. Casilli, Les Liaisons numériques, cit.

48 Susan Leigh Star e Anselm Strauss, Layers of silence, arenas of voice: The ecology of visible and invisible work, “Computer Supported Cooperative Work” (Cscw), vol. 8, n. 1-2, 1999, pp. 9-30.

49 Ibid.

50 Ibid.

51 Jérôme Denis, Le Travail invisible des données. Éléments pour une sociologie des infrastructures scripturales, Paris, Presse des Mines, 2018.

52 Ivan Illich, Shadow work, “Philosophica”, vol. 26, n. 2, 1980, pp. 7-46 (7).

53 Ivi, p. 8.

54 Thorstein Veblen, Teoria della classe agiata, Einaudi, Torino, 2007 [1899].

55 Jethro Lieberman, The Tyranny of the Experts: How Professionals and Specialists Are Closing the Open Society, New York, Walker, 1970.

56 Ian Bogost, The Geek’s Chihuahua: Living with Apple, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 2015.

57

58 Ivi, p. 48.

59 Ivi, pp. 50-51.

7. Che tipo di lavoro è il digital labor?

1 Jean-Pierre Durand, La Chaîne invisible. Travailler aujourd’hui: flux tendu et servitude volontaire, Paris, Seuil, 2004.

2 Patrice Flichy, Les Nouvelles Frontières du travail à l’ère numérique, Paris, Seuil, 2017.

3 Denis Pennel, Travailler pour soi. Quel avenir pour le travail à l’heure de la révolution individualiste?, Paris, Seuil, 2013.

4 Stanley Aronowitz e William Difazio, The Jobless Future: Sci-Tech and the Dogma of Work, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1995; Stanley Aronowitz e Jonathan Cutler (a cura di), Post-Work: The Wages of Cybernation, New York, Routledge, 1998.

5 Ilo, Employment by economic class, globally and in regions, “Key Indicators of the Labour Market” (Kilm), 2013, http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/multimedia/maps-and-charts/WCMS_232039/lang--fr/index.htm.

6 Marc Bacchetta, Ekkehard Ernst e Juana P. Bustamante, Globalization and Informal Jobs in Developing Countries, Genève, International Labour Organization, 2009, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_115087.pdf.

7 Zygmunt Bauman, Work, Consumerism and the New Poor, Buckingham, Philadelphia, Open University Press, 1998; Ulrich Beck, The Brave New World of Work, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2000.

8 Richard Sennett, L’uomo flessibile. Le conseguenze del nuovo capitalismo sulla vita personale, Milano, Feltrinelli, 2016 [1998].

9 Tim Strangleman, The nostalgia for permanence at work? The end of work and its commentators, “The Sociological Review”, vol. 55, n. 1, 2007, pp. 81-103 (85).

10 P. Flichy, Les Nouvelles Frontières du travail à l’ère numérique, cit.

11 Sarah Abdelnour, Les Nouveaux Prolétaires, Paris, Textuel, 2011.

12 Denis Pennel, Travail, la soif de liberté: Comment les start-uppers, slashers, co-workers réinventent le travail, Paris, Eyrolles, 2017.

13 Silvio Lorusso, Entreprecariat – Siamo tutti imprenditori. Nessuno è al sicuro, Brescia, Krisis Publishing, 2018.

14 Florence Weber, Le Travail à côté. Étude d’ethnographie ouvrière, Paris, Emess et Ira, 1989.

15 Bernard Gazier, Tous “sublimes”. Vers un nouveau plein emploi, Paris, Flammarion, 2003.

16 Christophe Aguiton e Dominique Cardon, The strength of weak cooperation: An attempt to understand the meaning of Web 2.0, “Communications & Strategies”, vol. 65, n. 1, 2007, pp. 51-65 (62).

17 Pekka Himanen, L’etica hacker e lo spirito dell’informazione, Milano, Feltrinelli, 2001 [1999].

18 Michel Lallement, L’Âge du faire. Hacking, travail, anarchie, Paris, Seuil, 2015, p. 156.

19 Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, The Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2006.

20 M. Lallement, L’Âge du faire, cit., p. 371.

21 Nicolas Dodier, Les Hommes et les Machines. La conscience collective dans les sociétés technicisées, Paris, Métailié, 1995.

22 Michael J. Piore, Dualism in the labor market: A response to uncertainty and flux. The case of France, “Revue économique”, vol. 29, n. 1, 1978, pp. 26-48.

23 Anthony Wing Kosner, Google cabs and Uber bots Will challenge jobs “below the Api”, “Forbes”, 4 febbraio 2015, https://www.forbes.com/sites/anthonykosner/2015/02/04/google-cabs-and-uber-bots-will-challenge-jobs-below-the-api/.

24 Michael Reich, David M. Gordon e Richard C. Edwards, Dual labor markets: A theory of labor market segmentation, “American Economic Review”, vol. 63, n. 2, 1973, pp. 359-365 (361).

25 Peter Reinhardt, Replacing middle management with Apis, “Peter Reinhardt’s blog”, 3 febbraio 2015, https://rein.pk/replacing-middle-management-with-apis.

26 Peter B. Doeringer e Michael J. Piore, Internal Labor Markets and Manpower Analysis, Princeton, Heath Lexington Books, 1971; Olivier Favereau, Marchés internes, marchés externes, “Revue économique”, vol. 40, n. 2, 1989, pp. 273-328. Cfr. l’analisi di queste ricerche in Denis Colombi, Les Usages de la mondialisation. Mobilité internationale et marchés du travail en France, tesi di dottorato in sociologia, SciencesPo Paris, Cso, 2016.

27 Gaëtan Flocco, Jean-Pierre Durand, François Dubet, Michel Lallement e Danièle Linhart, Clairvoyance ou aveuglement des travailleurs: qu’en disent les sociologues?, “La Nouvelle Revue du travail”, n. 5, 2014, https://journals.openedition.org/nrt/1999.

28 Michel Lallement, Work and the challenge of autonomy, “Social Science Information”, vol. 54, n. 2, 2015, pp. 229-248; Diviyan Kalainathan, Olivier Goudet, Philippe Caillou, Michèle Sebag, Paola Tubaro, Émilie Bourdu e Thierry Weil, Portraits de travailleurs. Comprendre la qualité de vie au travail, Paris, Presses des Mines, 2017.

29 Isabelle Berrebi-Hoffmann, Michel Lallement e Odile Piriou, La division internationale du travail dans les services informatiques: off-shore et politiques des ressources humaines dans les grandes Ssii, “Rapport de recherche Apec, Laboratoire Lise”, 2010.

30 Isabelle Berrebi-Hoffmann, Michel Lallement, François Sarfati e Martine Pernod-Lemattre, Hyper-flexibility in the IT sector: myth or reality?, in Carole Thornley, Steve Jefferys e Béatrice Appay (a cura di), Globalization and Precarious Forms of Production and Employment: Challenges for Workers and Unions, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2010, pp. 133-146 (138).

31 Isabelle Berrebi-Hoffmann, Les consultants et informaticiens. Un modèle d’encadrement de professionnels à l’échelle industrielle, “Revue française de gestion”, vol. 32, n. 168-169, 2006, pp. 157-176.

32 Alain Cottereau, Droit et bon droit. Un droit des ouvriers instauré, puis évincé par le droit du travail (France, XIXe siècle), “Annales. Histoire, sciences sociales”, vol. 57, n. 6, 2002, pp. 1521-1557.

33 Claude Didry, L’Institution du travail, Paris, La Dispute, 2016, p. 12.

34 Be your own boss: Drive on the Uber platform, “Uber Newsroom”, 30 maggio 2015, https://newsroom.uber.com/us-louisiana/be-your-own-boss-drive-on-the-uber-platform.

35 Si veda la decisione del 28 ottobre 2016 del Tribunale del lavoro di Londra che ha riqualificato due guidatori da “self-employed” a “worker”. Negli Stati Uniti, la decisione del Tribunale di San Francisco del 16 giugno 2015 (Uber Technologies Inc. contro Barbara Berwick) ha stabilito che i guidatori Uber erano effettivamente dei lavoratori dipendenti. In Francia, l’Urssaf della regione Île-de-France ha lanciato contro Uber azioni penali per lavoro dissimulato. In Italia, una sentenza del gennaio 2020 della Corte di Cassazione ha stabilito in base a un articolo del Jobs Act che i ciclofattorini beneficiano degli stessi diritti dei lavoratori subordinati.

36 Si veda il programma UberEntrepeneur, https://www.uber.com/zh-SG/drive/resources/uber-entrepreneur/.

37 A. Cottereau, Droit et bon droit, cit., p. 1551.

38 V. Lehdonvirta, I. Hjorth, M. Graham e H. Barnard, Online labour markets and the persistence of personal networks: Evidence from workers in Southeast Asia, cit.

39 Pauline Barraud de Lagerie, L’éternel retour du sweating system?, “L’Homme et la société”, vol. 3, n. 193-194, 2014, pp. 73-90.

40 D. Martin, J. O’Neill, N. Gupta e B. V. Hanrahan, Turking in a Global Labour Market, cit., p. 63.

41 A. Cottereau, Droit et bon droit, cit., pp. 1550-1551.

42 Ali Alkhatib, Michael S. Bernstein e Margaret Levi, Examining crowd work and gig work through the historical lens of piecework, Chi ’17: Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, Acm, 2017, pp. 4599-4616.

43 Imanol Arrieta Ibarra, Leonard Goff, Diego Jiménez Hernandez, Jaron Lanier e E. Glen Weyl, Should we treat data as labor? Moving beyond “free”, “American Economic Association Papers & Proceedings”, vol. 108, maggio 2018, pp. 38-42.

44 Alain Supiot, Les nouveaux visages de la subordination, “Droit social”, n. 2, 2000, pp. 131-145.

45 Isabelle Berrebi-Hoffmann, Impossible subordination? Figures de la relation hiérarchique dans les services informatiques, in Patrick Cingolani (a cura di), Un travail sans limites? Subordination, tensions, résistances, Toulouse, Érès, 2012, pp. 59-79.

46 Deliveroo, https://deliveroo.it/it/apply.

47 Amazon Mechanical Turk, MTurk now supports Amazon SNS Notifications, “MTurk Blog”, 5 ottobre 2017, https://blog.mturk.com/mturk-now-supports-amazon-sns-notifications-b4847a6589e6.

48 Miriam A. Cherry e Antonio Aloisi, “Dependent contractors” in the gig economy: A comparative approach, “American University Law Review”, vol. 33, n. 3, 2016, pp. 635-689.

49 Lilly Irani, Difference and dependence among digital workers: The case of Amazon Mechanical Turk, “South Atlantic Quarterly”, vol. 114, n. 1, 2015, pp. 225-234.

50 Bruno Asdourian, Florence Van Hove e Dominique Bourgeois, Participation journalistique sur Twitter. Injonctions à la participation et formes d’intervention numériques: le cas de la Radio Télévision Suisse, “Studies in Communication Sciences”, vol. 15, n. 2, 2015, pp. 190-196.

51 Prendo in prestito questa formula, per trasferirla al contesto delle piattaforme digitali, all’etnologia, da Olivier D’Hont (Techniques et savoirs des communautés rurales. Approche ethnographique du développement, Paris, Karthala, 2005) che la utilizzava per indicare le relazioni tra membri di comunità rurali e intermediari sul mercato dei fornitori di materiale agricolo.

52 B.J. Fogg, A behavior model for persuasive design, Persuasive ’09: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology, New York, Acm, 2009, art. 40.

53 Maurizio Ferraris, Dove sei?: Ontologia del telefonino, Milano, Bompiani, 2011.

54 Christian Licoppe, Pragmatique de la notification, “Tracés”, n. 16, 2009, pp. 77-98.

55 Fred Pailler e Antonio A. Casilli, S’inscrire en faux. Les fakes et les politiques de l’identité des publics connectés, “Communication”, vol. 33, n. 2, 2015, http://journals.openedition.org/communication/5986.

56 Saadi Lahlou, Attracteurs cognitifs et travail de bureau, “Intellectica”, vol. 30, n. 1, 2000, pp. 75-113.

57 Julien Pierre, Le régime de la dispersion: quand les notifications s’invitent dans la vie privée, in Yves Citton, L’Économie de l’attention. Nouvel horizon du capitalisme?, Paris, La Découverte, 2014, pp. 191-203.

58 Caroline Datchary, La Dispersion au travail, Toulouse, Octarès, 2011.

59 Laurent Thevenot, L’action en plan, “Sociologie du travail”, vol. 37, n. 3, 1995, pp. 411-434.

60 Robert Castel, Le metamorfosi della questione sociale. Una cronaca del salariato, Milano, Mimesis, 2019.

61 A. Cottereau, Droit et bon droit, cit.

62 David Golumbia, Marxism and open access in the humanities: Turning academic labor against itself, “Workplace”, n. 28, 2016, pp. 74-114.

63 Sarah T. Roberts, Behind the Screen: Content Moderation in the Shadow of Social Media, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2019.

64 MicroSourcing, Virtual captives, 2016, https://www.micro-sourcing.com/virtual-captives.asp.

65 Erran Carmel, Mary Lacity e Joseph W. Rottman, Impact sourcing: Employing prison inmates to perform digitally-enabled business services, “Communications of the Association for Information Systems”, vol. 34, n. 1, 2014, art. 51.

66 Kevin Rothrock, There’s a prison in Russia making viral YouTube videos, Global Voices, 4 marzo 2016, https://globalvoices.org/2016/03/04/theres-a-prison-in-russia-making-viral-youtube-videos/.

67 Clare Chambers-Jones, Virtual world financial crime: legally flawed, “Law and Financial Markets Review”, vol. 7, n. 1, 2013, pp. 48-56.

68 Nick Dyer-Witheford, Games of Empire: Global Capitalism and Video Games, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 2009.

69 Shannon Sims, The end of American prison visits: jails end face-to-face contact – and families suffer, “The Guardian”, 9 dicembre 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/dec/09/skype-for-jailed-video-calls-prisons-replace-in-person-visits.

70 Dave Maass, The hidden cost of JPay’s prison email service, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 5 maggio 2015, https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2015/05/hidden-cost-jpays-prison-email-system.

71 David Kravets, Worker fired for disabling Gps app that tracked her 24 hours a day, “ArsTechnica”, 11 maggio 2015, http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2015/05/worker-fired- for-disabling-gps-app-that-tracked-her- 24-hours-a-day.

72 Kirstie Ball, Workplace surveillance: an overview, “Labour History”, vol. 51, n. 1, 2010, pp. 87-106.

73 Barbara Ehrenreich, Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting by in America, New York, Metropolitan Books, 2001.

74 D. Pennel, Travailler pour soi, cit., p. 37.

75 Jean-Emmanuel Ray, Travail et droit du travail de demain. Autonomie, sur-subordination, sub-organisation?, in France Stratégie, Nouvelles formes du travail et de protection des actifs, 2016, http://francestrategie1727.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/fs.jean-.emmanuel-ray.2-mai.envoye.pdf.

76 Samuel Warren e Louis Brandeis, The right to privacy, “Harvard Law Review”, vol. 4, n. 5, 1890, pp. 193-220; John Deigh, Privacidad, democracia e Internet, in Serge Champeau e Daniel Innerarity (a cura di), Internet y el Futuro de la Democracia, Barcelona, Paidós, 2012, pp. 119-132.

77 Judith Donath, Signals in social supernets, “Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication”, vol. 13, n. 1, pp. 231-251.

78 Helen Nissenbaum, Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life, Redwood City, Stanford University Press, 2009.

79 P. Tubaro, A.A. Casilli e Y. Sarabi, Against the Hypothesis of the End of Privacy, cit.

80 Ifeoma Ajunwa, Kate Crawford e Jason Schultz, Limitless worker surveillance, “California Law Review”, vol. 105, n. 3, 2017, pp. 101-142.

81 Julie E. Cohen, The surveillance-innovation complex: The irony of the participatory turn, in Darin Barney, Gabriella Coleman, Christine Ross, Jonathan Sterne e Tamar Tembeck (a cura di), The Participatory Condition in The Digital Age, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 2016, pp. 207-226.

82 Shoshana Zuboff, Il capitalismo della sorveglianza. Il futuro dell’umanità nell’era dei nuovi poteri, Roma, Luiss University Press, 2019.

83 Alex Rosenblat, Tamara Kneese e Danah Boyd, Workplace surveillance, Open Society Foundations’ Future of Work Commissioned Research Papers, ottobre 2014, https://datasociety.net/pubs/fow/WorkplaceSurveillance.pdf.

84 Gina Neff, Venture Labor Work and the Burden of Risk in Innovative Industries, Cambridge, Mit Press, 2012.

85 Antonio Casilli, Four Theses on Digital Mass Surveillance and the Negotiation Of Privacy, comunicazione all’8th Annual Privacy Law Scholar Congress 2015, Berkeley Center for Law & Technology, giugno 2015, Berkeley, https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01147832/document; Id., La surveillance participative, “Problèmes politiques et sociaux”, n. 988, Contrôles et surveillances dans le cyberespace, 2011, p. 21.

86 Jamais Cascio, Participatory Panopticon, Institute for the Future, “Ten-Year Forecast: Perspectives”, SR-1064, 2007, pp. 20-27.

87 I. Ajunwa, K. Crawford e J. Schultz, Limitless worker surveillance, cit.

88 Gary T. Marx, Soft surveillance: The growth of mandatory volunteerism in collecting personal information – Hey buddy can you spare a Dna?, in Torin Monahan (a cura di), Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics and Power in Everyday Life, New York, Routledge, 2006, pp. 37-56.

89 A. Romele, F. Gallino, C. Emmenegger e D. Gorgone, Panopticism is not enough: Social media as technologies of voluntary servitude, cit.

90 Valérie Sédallian, Les conditions générales d’utilisation ont-elles une valeur juridique?, “Documentaliste – Sciences de l’information”, vol. 49, n. 1, 2012, pp. 16-19.

91 Uber Portier B. V., Uber Contract, trasmesso da Abc News, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 22 aprile 2018, https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/4443736-Uber-Contract.html.

92 Amazon Mechanical Turk, Participation Agreement, 17 ottobre 2017, https://www.mturk.com/worker/participation-agreement.

93 HowTank, Conditions générales, 11 aprile 2018, https://www.howtank.com/conditions-generales.

94 V. De Stefano, The rise of the “just-in-time workforce”, cit.

95 Zach Zhizhong Zhou e Kevin Zhu, Platform battle with lock-in, Icis 2006 Proceedings, Ais Electronic Library (AISeL), art. 20, 2006, pp. 267-284, http://aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1141&context=icis2006.

96 Marios Kokkodis e Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis, Reputation transferability in online labor markets, “Management Science”, vol. 62, n. 6, 2015, pp. 1687-1706.

97 V. De Stefano, The rise of the “just-in-time workforce”, cit., p. 32.

98 Paul-Henri Antonmattei e Jean-Christophe Sciberras, Le Travailleur économiquement dépendant: quelle protection?, rapporto al ministro del Lavoro francese, novembre 2008.

99 Delphine Gardes, Une définition juridique du travail, “Droit social”, n. 4, 2014, pp. 373-382.

8. Aspettando i robot

1 Yves-Charles Zarka, Foucault et l’idée d’une histoire de la subjectivité: le moment moderne, “Archives de philosophie”, vol. 65, n. 2, 2002, pp. 255-267.

2 Stéphane Haber, Actualité et transformation du concept d’exploitation. L’exemple du “travail numérique”, “Actuel Marx”, n. 63, 2018, pp. 70-85.

3 Christian Fuchs, Digital Labor and Karl Marx, New York, Routledge, 2014.

4 Georges Friedmann, Lavoro in frantumi, Milano, Edizioni di Comunità, 1960 [1956].

5 Ivi, p. 143.

6 A.A. Casilli, Les Liaisons numériques, cit.

7 K. Jarrett, Feminism, Labour and Digital Media, cit.

8 Mark Graham, Vili Lehdonvirta, Alex J. Wood, Helena Barnard e Isis Hjorth, Could online gig work drive development in lower-income countries?, in Hernan Galperin e Andrea Alarcon (a cura di), The Future of Work in the Global South, Ottawa, Idrc, 2018, pp. 8-11.

9 Katherine K. Chen, Prosumption: From parasitic to prefigurative, “The Sociological Quarterly”, vol. 56, n. 3, 2015, pp. 446-459.

10 Carlo Formenti, Felici e sfruttati. Capitalismo digitale ed eclissi del lavoro, Milano, Egea, 2011.

11 Davide Dusi, Investigating the exploitative and empowering potential of the prosumption phenomenon, “Sociology Compass”, vol. 11, n. 6, 2017, e12488.

12 Eran Fisher, How less alienation creates more exploitation? Audience labour on social network sites, “tripleC – Cognition Communication Co-operation”, vol. 10, n. 2, 2012, pp. 171-183 (175).

13 Marie-Anne Dujarier, The activity of the consumer: Strengthening, transforming, or contesting capitalism?, “The Sociological Quarterly”, vol. 56, n. 3, 2015, pp. 460-471.

14 Richard Barbrook, The Class of the New, London, Openmute.org, 2006.

15 Friedrich Engels, La situazione della classe operaia in Inghilterra, Milano, Edizioni Lotta Comunista, 2011 [1845].

16 Lenin, L’Imperialismo fase suprema del capitalismo, Roma, Editori Riuniti, 1964 [1917], p. 147.

17 Gregory Zinoviev, The social roots of opportunism, “New International”, vol. 8, n. 2, 1942 [1916], pp. 54-60.

18 Antonio Gramsci, Quaderni dal carcere, t. III, quaderno 12 (XXIX), § (1), Torino, Einaudi, 1975 [1934].

19 Thorstein Veblen, The Engineers and the Price System, New York, Viking Press, 1921.

20 William Whyte, L’uomo dell’organizzazione, Torino, Einaudi, 1971 [1956].

21 Serge Mallet, La Nouvelle Classe ouvrière, Paris, Seuil, 1964.

22 Arthur Kroker e Michael A. Weinstein, Data Trash: The Theory of the Virtual Class, Montréal, New World Perspectives, 1994.

23 Richard Florida, L’ascesa della nuova classe creativa. Stile di vita, valori e professioni, Milano, Mondadori, 2003.

24 Ian Angell, The New Barbarian Manifesto: How to Survive the Information Age, London, Kogan Page Ltd., 2000.

25 R. Barbrook, The Class of the New, cit.; Christian Fuchs, Labor in informational capitalism and on the internet, “The Information Society”, vol. 26, n. 3, 2010, pp. 179-196.

26 Mike Wayne, Marxism and Media Studies: Key Concepts and Contemporary Trends, London, Pluto, 2003.

27 André Gorz, Addio al proletariato, Roma, Edizioni Lavoro, 1982.

28 Alvin Toffler, Previews & Premises, New York, William Morrow & Co., 1983.

29 Franco Berardi (Bifo), La fabbrica dell’infelicità. New economy e movimento del cognitariato, Roma, DeriveApprodi, 2002.

30 Nick Dyer-Witheford, Cyber-Marx: Cycles and Circuits of Struggle in High-­Technology Capitalism, Urbana e Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1999.

31 U. Huws, The Making of a Cybertariat, cit.

32 Joël de Rosnay e Carlo Revelli, La Révolte du pronétariat, Paris, Fayard, 2006.

33 Guy Standing, Precari: la nuova classe esplosiva, Bologna, il Mulino, 2014.

34 McKenzie Wark, Nouvelles stratégies de la classe vectorialiste, Multitudes, n. 54, 2013, pp. 191-198.

35 Manuel Castells, An introduction to the Information Age, in Frank Webster, Raimo Blom, Erkki Karvonen, Harri Melin, Kaarle Nordenstreng e Ensio Puoskari (a cura di), The Information Society Reader, New York, Routledge, 2004, pp. 138-149.

36 McKenzie Wark, The vectoralist class, “e-flux Journal”, n. 65, Supercommunity, 2015.

37 Amazon in effetti possiede soltanto tredici punti vendita al dettaglio di libri, situati negli Stati Uniti e aperti a partire da 2015 sostanzialmente a fini di rappresentanza.

38 M. Wark, The vectoralist class, cit.

39 Id., Nouvelles stratégies de la classe vectorialiste, cit., p. 191.

40 Id., The vectoralist class, cit.

42 Antonio Negri, The labor of the multitude and the fabric of biopolitics, “Mediations”, vol. 23, n. 2, 2008, pp. 8-25.

43 Roberto Casati, Contro il colonialismo digitale. Istruzioni per continuare a leggere, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 2013.

44 Nick Couldry e Ulises Ali Mejias, The Costs of Connection: How Data Is Colonizing Human Life and Appropriating It for Capitalism, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2019.

45 Dmytri Kleiner, Mr. Peel goes to Cyberspace. Resisting digital colonization, comunicazione al convegno Digital Bauhaus Summit 2016 – Luxury Communism, Neufert-Box & Deutsches Nationaltheater, Weimar, 2016.

46 Petar Jandrić e Ana Kuzmanić, Digital postcolonialism, “Iadis: International Journal on Www/Internet”, vol. 13, n. 2, pp. 34-51.

47 Adrienne LaFrance, Facebook and the new colonialism, “The Atlantic”, 11 febbraio 2016, https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/02/facebook-and-the-new-colonialism/462393/.

48 Gordon Bell, The colonization of cyberspace, seminario all’Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Barcelona, 1999.

49 Howard Rheingold, Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier, Reading, Addison-Wesley, 1993.

50 Marc Prensky, Digital natives, digital immigrants, “On the Horizon”, vol. 9, n. 5, 2001, pp. 1-6.

51 Si veda, su questo tema, il progetto di Kate Crawford e Vladan Joler, Anatomy of an AI system: The Amazon echo as an anatomical map of human labor, data and planetary resources, AI Now Institute and Share Lab, 7 settembre 2018, https://anatomyof.ai.

52 Christian Fuchs, Digital labor and imperialism, “Monthly Review”, vol. 67, n. 8, 2016, pp. 14-24.

53 J. L. Qiu, Goodbye iSlave, cit.

54 Id., Working-Class Network Society: Communication Technology and the Information Have-Less in Urban China, Cambridge, The Mit Press, 2009.

55 Jack Linchuan Qiu e Lin Lin, Foxconn: The disruption of iSlavery, “Asiascape: Digital Asia”, vol. 4, n. 1-2, 2017, pp. 103-128.

56 J. L. Qiu, Goodbye iSlave, cit.

57 Vili Lehdonvirta, Helena Barnard, Mark Graham e Isis Hjorth, Online labour markets – Levelling the playing field for international service markets?, comunicazione al convegno Ipp2014: Crowd-sourcing for Politics and Policy Conference, Oxford, Università di Oxford, 2014.

58 Karim Jouini, Quand un être humain se cache derrière votre intelligence artificielle, “La Tribune”, 14 febbraio 2018, pp. 100-101.

59 Payal Arora, Bottom of the data pyramid: Big Data and the Global South, “International Journal of Communication”, vol. 10, n. 1, 2014, pp. 1681-1699.

60 Crisis squeezes income and puts pressure on inequality and poverty, Paris, Ocse, 2013, http://archives.strategie.gouv.fr/cas/system/files/oecd2013-inequality-and-poverty-8p.pdf.

61 Fondo monetario internazionale, Jobs and Growth: Analytical and Operational Considerations for the Fund, Paris, Fmi, 14 marzo 2013, https://www.imf.org/external/np/pp/eng/2013/031413.pdf.

62 Andrew Ross, Fast Boat to China: Corporate Flight and the Consequences of Free Trade: Lessons from Shanghai, New York, Random House, 2006.

63 Christopher Foster e Mark Graham, Reconsidering the role of the digital in global production networks, “Global Networks: A Journal of Transnational Affairs”, vol. 17, n. 1, 2017, pp. 68-88.

64 M. Graham, A. Wood, I. Hjorth e V. Lehdonvirta, Digital labour and development, cit.

65 Ayhan Aytes, Return of the crowds: Mechanical Turk and neo-liberal states of exception, in T. Scholz (a cura di), Digital Labor, cit., pp. 79-97.

66 Ilo, Global Wage Report 2016/17: Wage inequality in the workplace, “Global Wage Report 2016-2017”, Genève, International Labour Organisation, 2016.

67 Facebook, Inc., Socioeconomic group classification based on user features, United States Patent Application, 1° febbraio 2018.

68 Ibid.

69 Ibid.

70 Mario Tronti, Noi operaisti, Roma, DeriveApprodi, 2009.

71 Roberto Ciccarelli, Forza Lavoro. Il lato oscuro della rivoluzione digitale, Roma, DeriveApprodi, 2018.

72 Bruce J. Berman, Artificial intelligence and the ideology of capitalist reconstruction, “AI & Society”, vol. 6, n. 2, 1992, pp. 103-114.

73 Edward A. Feigenbaum, Some challenges and grand challenges for computational intelligence, “Journal of the Acm”, vol. 50, n. 1, 2003, pp. 32-40 (39).

74 Ibid.

75 Brian Hayes, The manifest destiny of artificial intelligence, “American Scientist”, vol. 100, n. 4, 2012, pp. 282-287.

76 Lilly Irani, The cultural work of microwork, “New Media & Society”, vol. 14, n. 1, 2015, pp. 137-152.

77 Hamid R. Ekbia e Bonnie A. Nardi, Heteromation, and Other Stories of Computing and Capitalism, Cambridge, Mit Press, 2017.

78 L. Irani, The cultural work of microwork, cit.

79 Hope Reese e Nick Heath, Inside Amazon’s clickworker platform: How half a million people are being paid pennies to train AI, “Tech Republic”, 16 dicembre 2016, http://www.techrepublic.com/article/inside-amazons-clickworker-platform-how-half-a-million-people-are-training-ai-for-pennies-per-task/.

80 OpenAI, AI and compute, “OpenAI Blog”, 16 maggio 2018, https://openai.com/blog/ai-and-compute//.

81 Jeremias Prassl, Humans as a Service: The Promise and Perils of Work in the Gig Economy, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2018.

82 Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America, Cambridge, Mit Press, 1996.

83 Danièle Linhart, La Comédie humaine du travail. De la déshumanisation taylorienne à la sur-humanisation managériale, Toulouse, Érès, 2015.

84 B.J. Berman, Artificial intelligence and the ideology of capitalist reconstruction, cit.

85 Pierre Naville, L’Automation et le Travail humain, Paris, Cnrs, 1961.

86 B. Hayes, The manifest destiny of artificial intelligence, cit.

87 Jennings Brown, Ibm Watson reportedly recommended cancer treatments that were “unsafe and incorrect”, “Gizmodo”, 25 luglio 2018, https://gizmodo.com/ibm-watson-reportedly-recommended-cancer-treatments-tha-1827868882.

88 Bernie Hogan, From invisible algorithms to interactive affordances: Data after the ideology of machine learning, in Elisa Bertino e Sorin Adam Matei (a cura di), Roles, Trust, and Reputation in Social Media Knowledge Markets, Basel, Springer, 2014, pp. 103-117.

89 Jean-Gabriel Ganascia, Le Mythe de la Singularité. Faut-il craindre l’intelligence artificielle?, Paris, Seuil, 2017, p. 51.

90 Ibid.

91 Davide Castelvecchi, Can we open the black box of AI?, “Nature”, vol. 538, n. 7623, 2016, pp. 21-23.

92 Aravindh Mahendran e Andrea Vedaldi, Understanding deep image representations by inverting them, “Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (Cvpr ’15)”, Boston, Ieee, 2015, pp. 5188-5196.

93 Adrian Mackenzie, Machine Learners: Archeology of a Data Practice, Cambridge, Mit Press, 2017.

94 Nils J. Nilsson, Human-level artificial intelligence? Be serious!, “AI Magazine”, 2005, pp. 68-75 (73) (corsivo nostro).

95 Ernest Mandel, Marx, la crise actuelle et l’avenir du travail humain, “Quatrième Internationale”, n. 20, maggio 1986, http://www.ernestmandel.org/new/ecrits/article/marx-la-crise-actuelle-et-l-avenir.

Conclusione. Che fare?

1 Riprendo qui il concetto sviluppato da Axel Honneth in La lotta per il riconoscimento, Milano, il Saggiatore, 2002 [1992].

2 Si veda per esempio Selina Wang, Uber drivers strike to protest fare cuts in New York City, “Bloomberg”, 1° febbraio 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-02-01/uber-drivers-plan-strike-to-protest-fare-cuts-in-new-york-city; Tnn, Ola, Uber drivers on hunger strike from today, “The Times of India”, 18 maggio 2018, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/ola-uber-drivers-on-hunger-strike-from-today/articleshow/64214992.cms; Hilary Osborne e Sean Farrell, Deliveroo workers strike again over new pay structure, “The Guardian”, 15 agosto 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/aug/15/deliveroo-workers-strike-again-over-new-pay-structure; Karen Cheung, Hong Kong riders for takeaway app Deliveroo go on strike over new work arrangements, “Hong Kong Free Press”, 23 gennaio 2018, https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/01/23/hong-kong-riders-takeaway-app-deliveroo-go-strike-new-work-arrangements.

3 Si veda a tal proposito la sentenza del 24 gennaio 2020 della Corte di Cassazione italiana che assimila il lavoro etero-organizzato dei ciclofattorini di Foodora al lavoro subordinato. In Spagna la sentenza del 2018 del Juzgado de lo Social di Valencia qualifica come “finti autonomi” i rider di Deliveroo. Tra il 2018 e il 2019, la Corte di Cassazione francese e la Corte d’Appello di Parigi hanno a loro volta dedotto la sussistenza dello status di lavoratori dipendenti per i rider della piattaforma TakeEatEasy e per gli autisti di Uber. Cfr. Gemma Paccella, Alienità del risultato, alienità dell’organizzazione: ancora una sentenza spagnola qualifica come subordinati i fattorini di Deliveroo, “Labor and Law Issues”, vol. 4, n. 1, 2018, pp. 61-90; Antonio Aloisi e Valerio De Stefano, Delivering employment rights to platform workers, “Rivista Il Mulino”, 31 gennaio 2020, https://www.rivistailmulino.it/news/newsitem/index/Item/News:NEWS_ITEM:5018. Negli Stati Uniti, in seguito alla sentenza “Dynamex” della Corte Suprema della California, il Senato dello stato americano ha approvato nel settembre 2019 l’Assembly Bill n. 5, un provvedimento che obbliga le piattaforme a garantire agli utenti-lavoratori gli stessi diritti dei lavoratori dipendenti. Cfr. California Legislative Information, AB-5 Worker status: employees and independent contractors, https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201920200AB5.

4 Oltre ai tentativi di organizzazione dei microlavoratori di Amazon Mechanical Turk da parte di WeAreDynamo (capitolo 4), in tempi più recenti gli utenti di Upwork hanno organizzato azioni di protesta. Alex Wood, Variable geographies of protest among online gig workers, “Oxford Internet Institute Blog”, 13 febbraio 2017, https://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/blog/variable-geographies-of-protest-among-online-gig-workers/.

5 My Fair Crowd Work, Fair Crowd work shedding light on the real work of crowd-, platform-, and app-based work, 2016, http://faircrowd.work/platform-reviews/platform-review-information/.

6 Si veda per esempio Aitor Riveiro, Los usuarios de Tuenti se declaran en huelga contra los términos de uso, “El País”, 5 marzo 2009, https://elpais.com/tecnologia/2009/03/05/actualidad/1236245278_850215.html; Kim LaCapria, Great Reddit blackout of 2015 (aka AMAgeddon), “Snopes”, 3 luglio 2015, https://www.snopes.com/news/2015/07/03/reddit-blackout-2015/; Nicola Slawson, Faceblock campaign urges users to boycott Facebook for a day, “The Guardian”, 7 aprile 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/apr/07/faceblock-campaign-urges-users-boycott-facebook-for-one-day-protest-cambridge-analytica-scandal.

7 È il caso dell’olandese De Datavakbond, che propone di proteggere gli interessi degli utenti delle grandi piattaforme come Google e Facebook inviando dei rappresentanti presso le piattaforme, https://datavakbond.nl/.

8 Oltre agli esempi già menzionati (cfr. supra), possiamo citare la class action contro Google lanciata da un gruppo di cittadini americani per far riconoscere l’utilizzo di reCAPTCHA come un’attività che deve dare diritto a un inquadramento formale da lavoratore dipendente dell’azienda californiana. Si veda Gabriela Rojas-Lozano vs Google Inc., United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts, caso 3:15-cv-10160-MGM, 2015.

9 Sarah Butler, Gig economy union seeks to raise £50,000 to fund Deliveroo fight, “The Guardian”, 16 maggio 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/may/16/gig-economy-union-seeking-to-raise-cash-to-fund-deliveroo-fight-legal-action.

10 Vincent Vérier, Colère des livreurs Deliveroo: dans la roue d’un livreur à vélo, “Le Parisien”, 27 agosto 2017, http://www.leparisien.fr/economie/colere-des-livreurs-deliveroo-dans-la-roue-d-un-livreur-a-velo-27-08-2017-7215921.php.

11 Kwame Opam, Uber drivers in California join with Teamsters Union to fight for better benefits, “The Verge”, 24 aprile 2016, https://www.theverge.com/2016/4/24/11497842/uber-drivers-teamsters-partnership-wages-benefits.

12 Cfr. la relazione introduttiva del segretario generale della Cgil Susanna Camusso alla conferenza Buon Lavoro. Governare l’innovazione, contrattare la digitalizzazione, 31 gennaio 2018, http://www.cgil.it/admin_nv47t8g34/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Susanna-Camusso-Relazione-Conferenza-Programma.pdf.

13 È il caso della Fair Work Foundation che lavora con l’Organizzazione internazionale del lavoro e la Conferenza delle Nazioni Unite sul commercio e lo sviluppo all’istituzione di norme di equità per il digital labor. Si veda Fairwork principles and certification standards, Genève, Ilo, 17 aprile 2018, https://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Fairwork-principles-explained.pdf.

14 Frankfurt paper on platform-based work, Crowdwork IGMetall, 6 dicembre 2016, http://crowdwork-igmetall.de/.

15 Nicolas Colin, Une protection sociale en phase avec l’économie numérique, “The Family”, 20 marzo 2015, https://salon.thefamily.co/pour-une-protection-sociale-en-phase-avec-l-%C3%A9conomie-num%C3%A9rique-efad69b088b7.

16 Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future?, New York, Simon & Schuster, 2013.

17 Génération Libre, Rapport: Mes data sont à moi. Pour une patrimonialité des données personnelles, gennaio 2018, https://www.generationlibre.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2018-01-generationlibre-patrimonialite-des-donnees.pdf.

18 Foo Yun Chee, Exclusive: Europe wants single data market to break U.S. tech giants’ dominance, Reuters, 29 gennaio 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-data-exclusive/exclusive-europe-wants-single-data-market-to-break-u-s-tech-giants-dominance-idUSKBN1ZS32E.

19 “I lavoratori del dato potrebbero organizzarsi in sindacati per negoziare i loro interessi collettivi presso i server sirena [concetto forgiato da Jaron Lanier per indicare le piattaforme più tentacolari]. Se da parte sua il singolo utente non ha nessun potere contrattuale, un sindacato che filtrasse l’accesso della piattaforma ai dati dell’utente potrebbe indire scioperi molto potenti. Un simile sindacato potrebbe costituire un ponte, essere capace d’imporre con più facilità uno sciopero e potrebbe essere particolarmente efficace su un social network dove opererebbe una pressione collettiva per sostenerlo.” I. Arrieta Ibarra, L. Goff, D. Jiménez-Hernández, J. Lanier e E. Glen Weyl, Should we treat data as labor?, cit., p. 40.

20 Si veda a questo proposito il ciclo di conferenze internazionali Platform cooperativism organizzate dal consorzio diretto da Trebor Scholz e Nathan Schneider, Supporting the Platform co-op ecosystem: Events, Platform Cooperativism Consortium, 2018, https://platform.coop/.

21 Niels van Doorn, Analysis: Platform cooperativism and the problem of the outside, “Culture Digitally”, 7 febbraio 2017, http://culturedigitally.org/2017/02/platform-cooperativism-and-the-problem-of-the-outside//.

22 Trebor Scholz e Nathan Schneider (a cura di), Ours to Hack and to Own: The Rise of Platform Cooperativism: A New Vision for the Future of Work and a Fairer Internet, New York, OR Books, 2017.

23 Trebor Scholz, Platform Cooperativism: Challenging the Corporate Sharing Economy, New York, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, 2016, pp. 18-19.

24 Trebor Scholz, Uberworked and Underpaid: How Workers are Disrupting the Digital Economy, New York, Polity Press, 2016.

25 Nel maggio 2018, il Platform Cooperativism Consortium ha ricevuto una sovvenzione di un milione di dollari da parte di Google. Robert Raymond, Platform Cooperativism Consortium awarded $1 million Google.org grant, “Shareable”, 31 maggio 2018, https://www.shareable.net/platform-cooperativism-consortium-awarded-1-million-google-org-grant/.

26 Platform Cooperativism Consortium, Working Document, 6 novembre 2016,https://docs.google.com/document/d/1urbTHQ3amRtlnK87cxxlRDzxzcgAfpqfqe2hzSzrKDg/edit.

27 Per una definizione di questo concetto si veda Lionel Maurel, La reconnaissance du “domaine commun informationnel”: tirer les enseignements d’un échec législatif, in N. Alix, J.-L. Bancel, B. Coriat e F. Sultan, Vers une république des biens communs, cit., pp. 133-141.

28 A proposito della nozione di insieme di diritti (bundle of rights) si veda Edella Schlager e Elinor Ostrom, Property-Rights Regimes and Natural Resources: A Conceptual Analysis, “Land Economics”, vol. 68, n. 3, 1992, pp. 249-262.

29 Si vedano Antonio Casilli e Paola Tubaro, Notre vie privée, un concept négociable, “Le Monde”, 24 gennaio 2018, e Lionel Maurel e Laura Aufrère, Pour une protection sociale des données personnelles, “S.I.Lex”, 5 febbraio 2018, https://scinfolex.com/2018/02/05/pour-une-protection-sociale-des-donnees-personnelles/.

30 Henri Hatzfeld, Du paupérisme à la sécurité sociale. 1850-1940, Nancy, Presses universitaires de Nancy, 1971; Robert Castel, La propriété sociale: émergence, transformations et remise en cause, “Esprit”, n. 8-9, 2008, pp. 171-190.

31 È esemplare in questo senso la class action pionieristica dell’associazione Europe vs Facebook presentata davanti alla Corte di giustizia dell’Unione europea nel 2014, già citata nel capitolo 5 e, più recentemente, le cinque denunce contro ognuna delle aziende Gafam lanciate in Francia dall’associazione di difesa delle libertà digitali La Quadrature du Net nel 2018, https://gafam.laquadrature.net.

32 A.A. Casilli, Quatre thèses sur la surveillance numérique de masse et la négociation de la vie privée, cit.

33 Valerio De Stefano, Negotiating the algorithm’: Automation, artificial intelligence and labour protection, “Employment Policy Department Working Paper”, n. 246, Genève, Ilo, 2018.

34 L. Maurel e L. Aufrère, Pour une protection sociale des données personnelles, cit.

35 Cletus Gregor Barié, Nuevas narrativas constitucionales en Bolivia y Ecuador: el buen vivir y los derechos de la naturaleza, “Latinoamérica. Revista de Estudios Latinoamericanos”, n. 59, 2014, pp. 9-40.

36 A questo proposito, si veda Unknown Fields, The Breast Milk of the Volcano, London, AA Publications, 2016.

37 Nicolas Colin e Pierre Collin, Rapport relatif à la fiscalité du secteur numérique, Paris, La Documentation française, 2013.

38 Francesco Guarascio, EU plans new tax for tech giants up to five percent of gross revenues, “Reuters, Technology News”, 26 febbraio 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-tax-digital/eu-plans-new-tax-for-tech-giants-up-to-5-percent-of-gross-revenues-idUSKCN1GA25R.

39 Vili Lehdonvirta, Brent Daniel Mittelstadt, Greg Taylor, Yin Yin Lu, Hartem Kadikov e Helen Margetts, Data Financing for Global Good: A Feasibility Study, Oxford, Oxford Internet Institute, 2016.

40 Nel 2014, alcune istituzioni internazionali come il Consiglio del digitale francese si erano già espresse contro l’istituzione di un diritto di proprietà privata sui dati personali. A fronte di un rapporto di forze asimmetrico tra consumatori e piattaforme, la vendita dei dati sotto un regime di proprietà privata non farebbe altro che generare un “reddito trascurabile” e sfociare in un aumento dell’ineguaglianza tra i cittadini. Francis Jutand, Benoît Thieulin, Yann Bonnet, Judith Herzog e Charly Berthet, Neutralité des plateformes: réunir les conditions d’un environnement numérique ouvert et soutenable, Conseil national du numérique, maggio 2014, https://www.vie-publique.fr/sites/default/files/rapport/pdf/144000332.pdf.

41 Ryan Abbott e Bret Bogenschneider, Should robots pay taxes? Tax policy in the age of automation, “Harvard Law & Policy Review”, vol. 12, n. 1, pp. 145-175.

42 Nick Srnicek e Alex Williams, Inventare il futuro, Roma, Nero, 2018.

43 Jean-Marie Monnier e Carlo Vercellone, Le financement du revenu social garanti comme revenu primaire. Approche méthodologique, “Mouvements”, vol. 73, n. 1, 2013, pp. 44-53.

44 Abbiamo difeso questa possibilità ben prima dell’avvento delle piattaforme digitali in Yuri Biondi e Antonio A. Casilli, Reddito universale di cittadinanza e riforma della moneta. Una proposta di portafoglio elettronico di moneta di cittadinanza, in Andrea Fumagalli e Maurizio Lazzarato (a cura di), Tute bianche. Disoccupazione di massa e reddito di cittadinanza, Roma, DeriveApprodi, 1999, pp. 63-73.

45 J.-M. Monnier e C. Vercellone, Le financement du revenu social garanti comme revenu primaire, cit., p. 47.

Postfazione

1 Erik Brynjolfsson e Andrew McAfee, In gara con le macchine. La tecnologia aiuta il lavoro?, Firenze, goWare, 2018.

2 https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf.

3 Coen Teulings e Richard Baldwin (a cura di), Secular Stagnation: Facts, Causes, and Cure, London, Centre for Economic Policy Research Press, 2014.

4 Augustin Berque, La ville insoutenable, in Pascal Tozzi, Villes et quartiers durables. La place des habitants, Pessac, Carrières sociales Éditions, 2016, p. 87.

5 Émile Durkheim, La divisione del lavoro sociale, Milano, il Saggiatore 2016 [1893].

6 Maëlezig Bigi, Olivier Cousin, Dominique Méda, Laetitia Sibaud e Michel Wieviorka, Travailler au xxie siècle. Des salariés en quête de reconnaissance, Paris, Robert Laffont, 2015.

7 Marie-Noëlle Chamoux, Sociétés avec et sans concept de travail, “Sociologie du travail”, hors-série, 1994, p. 69.

8 Jean-Pierre Vernant, Aspetti psicologici del lavoro nella Grecia antica (1956), in Mito e pensiero presso i Greci, Torino, Einaudi, 1965, p. 309.

9 Moishe Postone, Time, Labor, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx’s Critical Theory, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993.

10 Eric Heyer, Pascal Lokiec e Dominique Méda, Une autre voie est possibile, Paris, Flammarion, 2018.