Chapter I THE LEGACY OF THE PAST

1 Continuities between the Bismarckian Reich and the coming of the Third Reich form the central thesis of Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, III: Von der ‘Deutschen Doppelrevolution’ bis zum Beginn des Ersten Weltkrieges 1849-1914 (Munich, 1995), and Heinrich August Winkler, Der lange Weg nach Westen, I: Deutsche Geschichte vom Ende des Alten Reiches bis zum Untergang der Weimarer Republik (Munich, 2000).

2 Friedrich Meinecke, ‘Bismarck und das neue Deutschland’, in idem, Preussen und Deutschland‘im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1918), 510-31, quoted and translated in Edgar Feuchtwanger, Bismarck (London, 2002), 7.

3 Elizabeth Knowles (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (5th edn., Oxford, 1999), 116.

4 Quoted without attribution in Alan J. P. Taylor, Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman (London, 1955), 115.

5 For a good brief overview of this and the following period, see David Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Germany 1780-1918: The Long Nineteenth Century (London, 1997); more detail in James J. Sheehan, German History 1770-1866 (Oxford, 1989); more still in Thomas Nipperdey, Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck (Princeton, 1986 [1983]), and even more in Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, II: Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen ‘Deutschen Doppelrevolution’ 1815-1845/49 (Munich, 1987).

6 Taylor, The Course, 69.

7 For the debate on this issue, see in particular Geoff Eley, From Unification to Nazism: Reinterpreting the German Past (London, 1986), 254-82; David Blackbourn and Geoff Eley, The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth -Century Germany (Oxford, 1984); Evans, Rethinking German History, 93-122; Richard J. Evans (ed.), Society and Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (London, 1978); Jürgen Kocka, ‘German History Before Hitler: The Debate about the German Sonderweg’, Journal of Contemporary History, 23 (1988), 3-16; Robert G. Moeller,‘The Kaiserreich Recast? Continuity and Change in Modern German Historiography’, Journal of Social History, 17 (1984), 655-83.

8 Bismarck has been well served by his biographers. For the best two in narrative form, see Ernst Engelberg, Bismarck (2 vols., Berlin, 1985 and 1990) and Otto Pflanze, Bismarck (3 vols., Princeton, 1990).

9 Heinrich August Winkler, Der lange Weg nach Westen, II: Deutsche Geschichte vom ‘Dritten Reich’ bis zur Wiedervereinigung (Munich, 2000), 645-8.

10 Heinrich August Winkler, The Long Shadow of the Reich: Weighing up German History (The 2001 Annual Lecture of the German Historical Institute, London; London, 2002). Lothar Kettenacker, ‘Der Mythos vom Reich‘, in Karl H. Bohrer (ed.), Mythos und Moderne (Frankfurt am Main, 1983), 262-89.

11 Karl Marx, ‘Randglossen zum Programm der deutschen Arbeiterpartei’ (Kritik des Gothaer Programms, 1875), in Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Ausgewählte Schriften (2 vols., East Berlin, 1968), II. 11-28, at 25.

12 Otto Büsch, Militärsystem und Sozialleben im alten Preussen 1713-1807: Die Anfänge der sozialen Militarisierung der preussisch-deutschen Gesellschaft (Berlin, 1962).

13 Horst Kohl (ed.), Die politischen Reden des Fürsten Bismarck (14 vols., Stuttgart, 1892-1905), II. 29-30.

14 Lothar Gall, Bismarck: The White Revolutionary (2 vols., London, 1986 [1980]), the outstanding analytical study of Bismarck.

15 For the history of conscription, see Ute Frevert, Die kasernierte Nation: Militärdienst und Zivilgesellschaft in Deutschland (Munich, 2001); German militarism in a wider context is covered by Volker R. Berghahn, Militarism: The History of an International Debate 1861-1979 (Cambridge, 1984 [1981]), idem (ed.), Militarismus (Cologne, 1975), Martin Kitchen, A Military History of Germany from the Eighteenth Century to the Present Day (London, 1975) and Gordon A. Craig’s classic The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640-1945 (New York, 1964 [1955]); unconventional reflections in Geoff Eley, ‘Army, State and Civil Society: Revisiting the Problem of German Militarism’, in idem, From Unification to Nazism, 85-109.

16 Martin Kitchen, The German Officer Corps 1890-1914 (Oxford, 1968); Karl Demeter, Das deutsche Offizierkorps in Gesellschaft und Staat 1650-1945 (Frankfurt am Main, 1962). For the permanent threat of a coup d‘état, see Volker R. Berghahn, Germany and the Approach of War in 1914 (London, 1973), 13-15.

17 See Richard J. Evans, Rethinking German History, 248-90; idem, Rereading German History: From Unification to Reunification 1800-1996 (London, 1997), 65-86.

18 Ute Frevert, ‘Bourgeois Honour: Middle-class Duellists in Germany from the Late Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Century‘, in David Blackbourn and Richard J. Evans (eds.), The German Bourgeoisie: Essays on the Social History of the German Middle Class from the Late Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Century (London, 1991), 255-92; eadem, Ehrenmänner: Das Duell in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Munich, 1991).

19 Eley, From Unification to Nazism, 85-109; Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, III. 873-85.

20 Michael Geyer, ‘Die Geschichte des deutschen Militärs von 1860-1956: Ein Bericht über die Forschungslage (1945-1975)‘, in Hans-Ulrich Wehler (ed.), Die moderne deutsche Geschichte in der internationalen Forscbung 1945-1975 (Gottingen, 1978), 256-86; Helmut Bley, Namibia under German Rule (Hamburg, 1996 [1968]).

21 Gesine Krüger, Kriegshewältigung und Gescbicbtsbeivusstsein: Realität, Deutung und Verarbeitung des deutschen Kolonialkrieges in Namibia 1904 bis 1907 (Gottingen, 1999); Tilman Dedering, “‘A Certain Rigorous Treatment of all Parts of the Nation”: The Annihilation of the Herero in German Southwest Africa 1904’, in Mark Levene and Penny Roberts (eds.), The Massacre in History (New York, 1999), 205-12.

22 David Schoenbaum, Zabern 1913: Consensus Politics in Imperial Germany (London, 1982); Nicholas Stargardt, The German Idea of Militarism 1866-1914 (Cambridge, 1994); Wehler, Deutsche Gesellscbaftsgeschichte III. 1125-9.

23 Ulrich von Hassell, Die Hassell-Tagebiscber 1938-1944 (ed. Friedrich Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen, Berlin, 1989), 436.

24 Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Das Ringen um den nationalen Staat: Die Gründung und der innere Ausbau des Deutschen Reiches unter Otto von Bismarck 1850- 1890 (Berlin, 1993), 439-40; David Blackbourn, Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Bismarckian Germany (Oxford, 1993).

25 Vernon Lidtke, The Outlawed Party: Social Democracy in Germany, 1878- 1890 (Princeton, 1966); Evans, Rituals, 351-72.

26 Among many accounts of the Social Democrats’ evolution, see Susanne Miller and Heinrich Potthoff, A History of German Social Democracy: From 1848 to the Present (Leamington Spa, 1986 [1983]), a useful introductory text from the point of view of the present-day German Social Democrats; Detlef Lehnert, Sozialdemokratie zwischen Protestbewegung und Regierungspartei 1848-1983 (Frankfurt am Main, 1983), a good brief account; and Stefan Berger, Social Democracy and the Working Class in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-century Germany (London, 2.000), a more recent survey.

27 Alex Hall, Scandal, Sensation and Social Democracy: The SPD Press and Wilhelmine Germany 1890-1914 (Cambridge, 1977); Klaus Saul, ‘Der Staat und die “Mächte des Umsturzes”: Ein Beitrag zu den Methoden antisozialistischer Repression und Agitation vom Scheitern des Sozialistengesetzes bis zur Jahrhundertwende’, Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, 12 (1972), 293-350; Alex Hall, ‘By Other Means: The Legal Struggle against the SPD in Wilhelmine Germany 1890- 1900’, Historical Journal, 17 (1974), 365-86,

28 A convenient brief summary can be found in Gerhard A. Ritter, Die deutschen Parteien 1830-1914: Parteien und Gesellschaft im konstitutionellen Regierungssystem (Gottingen, 1985); the classic article on the subject is by M. Rainer Lepsius, ‘Parteisystem und Sozialstruktur: Zum Problem der Demokratisierung der deutschen Gesellschaft‘, in Gerhard A. Ritter (ed.), Die deutschen Parteien vor 1918 (Cologne, 1973), 56-80.

29 Gerhard A. Ritter, Wahigeschichtliches Arbeitsbuch: Materialien zur Statistik des Kaiserreichs 1871-1918 (Munich, 1980), 42.

30 Stanley Suval, Electoral Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Chapel Hill, NC, 1985); Margaret L. Anderson, Practicing Democracy: Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany (Princeton, 2000).

31 Kurt Koszyk, Deutsche Presse im 19. Jahrhundert: Geschichte der deutschen Presse, II (Berlin, 1966).

32 Richard J. Evans (ed.), Kneipengespräche im Kaiserreich: Die Stimmungsberichte der Hamburger Politischen Polizei 1892-1914 (Reinbek, 1989).

33 Brief introductory survey in Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, III. 961-5; more detail in William W. Hagen, Germans, Poles, and Jews: The Nationality Conflict in the Prussian East, 1772-1914 (Chicago, 1980).

34 Evans (ed.), Kneipengespräche, 361-83.

35 Volker R. Berghahn, Der Tirpitz-Plan: Genesis und Verfall einer innenpolitischen Krisenstrategie unter Wilhelm II. (Düsseldorf, 1971).

36 For a recent, judicious assessment of the Kaiser’s personality and influence, see Christopher Clark, Kaiser Wilhelm II (London, 2000).

37 Geoffrey Hosking, Russia: People and Empire 1552-1917 (London, 1997).

38 George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (New York, 1975).

39 Alan Milward and Samuel B. Saul, The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850-1914 (London, 1977), 19-20.

40 See, in general, Hubert Kiesewetter, Industrielle Revolution in Deutschland 1815-1914 (Frankfurt am Main, 1989).

41 Volker Ullrich, Die nervöse Grossmacht 1871- 1918: Aufstieg und Untergang des deutscben Kaiserreichs (Frankfurt am Main, 1997); Joachim Radkau, Das Zeitalter der Nervosität: Deutschland zwischen Bismarck und Hitler (Munich, 1998).

42 August Nitschke et al. (eds.),Jahrhundertwende: Der Aufbruch in die Moderne 1880-1930 (2 vols., Reinbek, 1990).

43 For these arguments, see Blackbourn and Eley, The Peculiarities.

44 Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (New York, 1964), 112- 13; Rosemarie Leuschen-Seppel, Sozialdemokratie und Antisemitismus im Kaiserreich: Die Auseinandersetzung der Partei mit den konservativen und volkischen Strömungen des Antisemitismus 1871-1914 (Bonn, 1978), 140-42; Richard S. Levy, The Downfall of the Anti-Semitic Political Parties in Imperial Germany (New Haven, 1975). See also the pioneering work of Paul W. Massing, Rehearsal for Destruction (New York, 1949).

45 I adopt here Marion Kaplan’s useful distinction between assimilation, involving a complete loss of cultural identity, and acculturation, involving the creation of a dual identity of one kind or another in a multicultural milieu: see Marion A. Kaplan, ‘The Acculturation, Assimilation, and Integration of Jews in Imperial Germany‘, Year Book of the Leo Baeck Institute, 27 (1982), 3-35.

46 Till van Rahden,Juden und andere Breslauer: Die Beziehungen zwischen Juden, Protestanten und Katholiken in einer deutschen Grossstadt von 1860 bis 1925 (Göttingen, 2000), 147-9; Peter J.G. Pulzer, Jews and the German State: The Political History of a Minority, 1848-1933 (Oxford, 1992), 6-7; Shulamit Volkov, Die Juden in Deutschland 1780-1918 (Munich, 1994); Usiel O. Schmelz, ‘Die demographische Entwicklung der Juden in Deutschland von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts‘bis 1933’, Bulletin des Leo Baeck Instituts, 83 (1989), 15-62, at 39-41; Jacob Toury, Soziale und politische Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland 1847-1871: Zwischen Revolution, Reaktion und Emanzipation (Düsseldorf, 1977), 60; Monika Richarz, Jüdisches Leben in Deutschland, II: Selbstzeugnisse zur Sozialgeschichte im Kaiserreich (Stuttgart, 1979), 16-17; Anthony Kauders, German Politics and the Jews: Düsseldorf and Nuremberg 1910-1933 (Oxford, 1996), 26; Kerstin Meiring, Die christlich-judische Mischehe in Deutschland, 1840-1933 (Hamburg, 1998).

47 Pulzer, Jews, 106-20.

48 Dietz Bering, The Stigma of Names: Antisemitism in German Daily Life, 1812-1933 (Cambridge, 1992. [1987]).

49 Pulzer, Jews, 5, II.

50 Niall Ferguson, The World’s Banker: The History of the House of Rothschild (London, 1998); Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder and the Building of the German Empire (New York, 1977).

51 Robert Gellately, The Politics of Economic Despair: Shopkeepers and German Politics, 1890-1914 (London, 1974), 42-3; Richarz, Jüdisches Leben, II. 17,23-35.

52 Ibid., 31-4.

53 Peter Pulzer, ‘Jews and Nation-Building in Germany 1815-1918’, Year Book of the Leo Baeck Institute, 41 (1996), 199-214.

54 See, in particular, Werner E. Mosse, Jews in. the German Economy: The German-Jewish Economic Élite 1820-1935 (Oxford, 1987), and idem, The German-Jewish Economic Élite 1820-1935: A Socio-Cultural Profile (Oxford, 1989), not only fine works of scholarship but also nostalgic celebrations of the achievements of the social group into which Mosse himself was born.

55 Pulzer, The Rise, 94-101, 113; Shulamit Volkov, Jüdisches Leben und Antisemitismus im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1990).

56 For Böckel and the antisemitic movement more generally, see David Peal, ‘Antisemitism by Other Means? The Rural Cooperative Movement in Late 19th Century Germany’, in Herbert A. Strauss (ed.), Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism 1870-1933/39: Germany - Great Britain - France (Berlin, 1993), 128-49; James N. Retallack, Notables of the Right: The Conservative Party and Political Mobilization in Germany, 1876-1918 (London, 1988), esp. 91-9; Hans-Jürgen Puhle, Agrarische Interessenpolitik und preussischer Konservatismus im wilhelminischen Reich 1893-1914: Ein Beitrag zur Analyse des Nationalismus in Deutschland am Beispiel des Bundes der Landwirte und der Deutscb-Konservativen Partei (Hanover, 1967) esp. 111-40.

57 Pulzer, The Rise, 53-5, 116; Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, III. 924-34; Thomas Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte 1866-1918, II: Machtstaat vor der Demokratie (Munich, 1992), 289-311.

58 Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700-1933 (Cambridge, Mass. 1980), is a classic general survey. For Catholic antisemitism in Germany, see Olaf Blaschke, Katholizismus und Antisemitismus im Deutschen Kaiserreich (Gottingen, 1997); Helmut Walser Smith, ‘The Learned and the Popular Discourse of Anti-Semitism in the Catholic Milieu in the Kaiserreich’, Central European History, 27 (1994), 315-28. Werner Jochmann, Gesellschaftskrise und Judenfeindschaft in Deutschland 1870-1945 (Hamburg, 1988), has a good introductory chapter, 30-98. James F. Harris, The People Speak! Anti-Semitism and Emancipation in Nineteenth-Century Bavaria (Ann Arbor, 1994), dismisses socio-economic factors too easily; the history of antisemitism cannot be reduced to the otherwise unexplained influence of a free-floating discourse.

59 Wilhelm Marr, Vom jüdischen Kriegsschauplatz: Eine Streitschrift (Berne, 1879), 19, cited in Pulzer, The Rise, 50; see also Marr’s pamphlet Der Sieg des judenthums über das Germanenthum vom nicht konfessionelien Standpunkt aus betrachtet (Berlin, 1873).

60 Moshe Zimmermann, Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism (New York, 1986), 89, 150-51, 154; Daniela Kasischke-Wurm, Antisemitismus im Spiegel der Hamburger Presse während des Kaiserreichs (1884-1914) (Hamburg, 1997) 240-46.

61 Ibid., 77.

62 Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, III. 925-9.

63 Evans (ed.), Kneipengespräche, 317.

64 Ibid., 313-21.

65 Leuschen-Seppel, Sozialdemokratie, esp. 36, 96, 100, 153, 171; Evans (ed.), Kneipengesprdche, 302-6, 318-19. These points, made in response to the sweeping claims of Daniel J. Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York, 1996), can be followed at greater length in Evans, Rereading, 119-44.

66 Stefan Scheil, Die Entwicklung des politischen Antisemitismus in Deutschland zwischen 1881 und 1912: Eine wahlgeschichtliche Untersuchung (Berlin, 1999).

67 See in particular Harris, The People Speak!, and Helmut Walser Smith, The Butcher’s Tale: Murder and Anti-Semitism in a German Town (New York, 2002) (which has excellent detail, but exaggerates the significance of a ‘ritual murder’ accusation in an obscure small town in the Prussian far east). See also Christoph Nonn, Eine Stadt sucht einen Mörder: Gerücht, Gewalt und Antisemitismus im Kaiserreich (Göttingen, 2002). For hostile press reactions to an earlier ritual murder accusation, see Kasischke-Wurm, Antisemitismus, 175-82.

68 Evidence in David Kertzer, Unholy War: The Vatican’s Role in the Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism (London, 2001), though the author’s claims for the significance of this material are too sweeping. For social and cultural studies of Catholic antisemitism in Germany, which leave no doubt about its pervasiveness, see Blaschke, Katholizismus und Antisemitismus; Michael Langer, Zwischen Vorurteil und Aggression: Zum Judenbild in der deutschspraehigen katholischen Volksbildung des 19. Jahrhunderts (Freiburg, 1994); Walter Zwi Bacharach, Anti-Jewish Prejudices in German-Catholic Sermons (Lewiston, Pa., 1993); David Blackbourn, ‘Roman Catholics, the Centre Party and Anti-Semitism in Imperial Germany’, in Paul Kennedy and Anthony Nicholls (eds.), Nationalist and Racialist Movements in Britain and Germany before 1914 (London, 1981), 106-29; and, for the international comparative dimension, Olaf Blaschke and Aram Mattioli (eds.), Katholischer Antisemitismus im 19. Jahrhundert: Ursachen und Traditionen im internationalen Vergleich (Zurich, 2000). For peasant protest and antisemitism in the Catholic community, see Ian Farr, ‘Populism in the Countryside: The Peasant Leagues in Bavaria in the 1890s’, in Evans (ed.), Society and Politics, 136-59.

69 See, for example, Norbert Kampe, Studenten und ‘Judenfrage’ im deutschen Kaiserreich: Die Entstehung einer akademischen Trägerschicht des Antisemitismus (Göttingen, 1988).

70 Stephen Wilson, Ideology and Experience: Antisemitism in France at the Time of the Dreyfus Affair (New York, 1982 [1980]); John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza (eds.) Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge, 1992.).

71 David Blackbourn, Populists and Patricians: Essays in Modern German History (London, 1987), 217-45 (‘The Politics of Demagogy in Imperial Germany’).

72 Julius Langbehn, Rembrandt als Erzieher (38th edn., Leipzig, 1891 [1890]), 292; idem, Der Rembrandtdeutsche: Von einem Wahrheitsfreund (Dresden, 1892), 184, both quoted in Pulzer, The Rise, 242; see also Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the German Ideology (New York, 1961).

73 Lessing’s play, first published in 1779, was a plea for religious toleration, especially of the Jews. For the quote, see Cosima Wagner, Die Tagebücher (ed. Martin Gregor-Dellin and Dietrich Mack, Munich, 1977), II. 852 (18 Dec. 1881); also 159, 309; Jacob Katz, The Darker Side of Genius: Richard Wagner’s AntiSemitism (Hanover, 1986), is a sane guide through this controversial subject.

74 George L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (London, 1964), 88-107; Annette Hein, ‘Es ist viel “Hitler” in Wagner’: Rassismus undantisemitische Deutschtumsideologie in den ‘Bayreuther Blättern’ (1878-1938) (Tübingen, 1996).

75 Winfried Schüler, Der Bayreuther Kreis von seiner Entstehung bis zum Ausgang der wilhelminischen Ära (Münster, 1971); Andrea Mork, Richard Wagner als politischer Schriftsteller: Weltanschauung und Wirkungsgeschichte (Frankfurt am Main, 1990); Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Die Grundlagen des XIX. Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Munich, 1899); Geoffrey G. Field, Evangelist of Race: The Germanic Vision of Houston Stewart Chamberlain (New York, 1981).

76 Ludwig Woltmann, Politische Anthropologie (ed. Otto Reche, Leipzig, 1936 [1900]), 16-17, 267, quoted in Mosse, The Crisis, 100-102.

77 Woodruff D. Smith, The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism (New York, 1986), 83-111; also Karl Lange, ‘Der Terminus “Lebensraum” in Hitlers Mein Kampf’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (hereinafter VfZ) 13 (1965), 42.6-37.

78 Paul Crook, Darwinism, War and History: The Debate Over the Biology of War from the ‘Origin of Species’ to the First World War (Cambridge, 1994), esp. 30, 83; Imanuel Geiss (ed.), July 1914: The Outbreak of the First World War. Selected Documents (London, 1967), 22; Holger Afflerbach, Falkenhayn: Politisches Denken und Handeln im Kaiserreich (Munich, 1994); see Evans, Rereading, 119-44, for a general consideration of the history and historiography of German Social Darwinism.

79 See, in general, Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism 1870-1945 (Cambridge, 1989), and Peter Weingart et al., Rasse, Blut und Gene: Geschichte der Eugenik und Rassenhygiene in Deutschland (Frankfurt am Main, 1992- [1988]).

80 Sheila F. Weiss, Race Hygiene and National Efficiency: The Eugenics of Wilhelm Schallmayer (Berkeley, 1987); Evans, Rituals, 438; Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and a World Without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892-1914 (Princeton, 1975), 125-9.

81 The pioneering article by Jeremy Noakes, ‘Nazism and Eugenics: The Background to the Nazi Sterilization Law of 14 July 1933’, in Roger Bullen et al. (eds.), Ideas into Politics: Aspects of European History 1880-1950 (London, 1984), 75-94, is still an indispensable guide to these various thinkers.

82 Karl Heinz Roth, ‘Schein-Alternativen im Gesundheitswesen: Alfred Grotjahn (1869-1931) - Integrationsfigur etablierter Sozialmedizin und nationalsozialistischer “Rassenhygiene” ’, in Karl Heinz Roth (ed.), Erfassung zur Vernichtung: Von der Sozialhygiene zum ‘Gesetz über Sterbehilfe’ (Berlin, 1984), 31-56; more generally, Sheila Weiss, ‘The Race Hygiene Movement in Germany‘, in Mark B. Adams (ed.), The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia (New York, 1990), 8-68.

83 His actual name was Adolf Lanz, but he called himself Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels for effect. Hans-Walter Schmuhl, Rassenhygiene, Nationalsozialismus, Euthanasie: Von der Verhütung zur Vernichtung ‘lebensunwerten Lebens‘, 1890-1945 (Göttingen, 1987); Wilfried Daim, Der Mann, der Hitler die Ideen gab: Die sektiererischen Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus (Vienna, 1985 [1958]).

84 Weiss, ’The Race Hygiene Movement‘, 9-11.

85 Max Weber, ‘Der Nationalstaat und die Volkswirtschaftpolitik’, in idem, Gesammelte politische Schriften (ed. J. Winckelmann, 3rd edn., Tübingen, 1971), 23.

86 Richard Hinton Thomas, Nietzsche in German Politics and Society 1890-1918 (Manchester, 1983), esp. 80-95. For a recent attempt to assess Nietzsche’s work in this general context, see Bernhard H. F. Taureck, Nietzsche und der Faschismus: Ein Politikum (Leipzig, 2000).

87 Steven E. Aschheim, The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany 1890-1990 (Berkeley, 1992).

88 Mosse, The Crisis, 204-7; Walter Laqueur, Young Germany: A History of the German Youth Movement (London, 1962); Jürgen Reulecke, ‘Ich möchte einer werden so wie die...’ Männerbünde im 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt am Main, 2001); Daim, Der Mann, 71-2.

89 Alastair Thompson, Left Liberals, the State, and Popular Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Oxford, 2000).

90 Stefan Breuer, Ordnungen der. Ungleichheit- die deutsche Rechte im Widerstreit ihrer Ideen 1871-1945 (Darmstadt, 2001), provides a thematic survey, emphasizing (370-76) the failure of an effective synthesis before the arrival of Nazism.

91 Andrew G. Whiteside, The Socialism of Fools: Georg von Schönerer and Austrian Pan-Germanism (Berkeley, 1975), esp. 73.

92 John W. Boyer, Political Radicalism in Late Imperial Vienna: Origins of the Christian Social Movement, 1848-1897 (Chicago, 1981).

93 Pulzer, The Rise, 207.

94 Brigitte Hamann, Hitler’s Vienna: A Dictator’s Apprenticeship (Oxford, 2000), 236-53, provides a comprehensive survey of Schönerer and other Viennese ideologues of the day.

95 Carlile A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire 1790-1918 (London, 1968), 632-5, 653-7, 666, 680, 799; Pulzer, The Rise, 149-60, 170-74, 206-9; Carl E. Schorske, Fin-de-Siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture (New York, 1980), 116-180; Massing, Rehearsal, 241; Hellmuth von Gerlach, Von rechts nach links (Hildesheim, 1978 [1937]), 112-14; Andrew G. Whiteside, Austrian National Socialism before 1918 (The Hague, 1962.).

96 Woodruff D. Smith, The German Colonial Empire (Chapel Hill, NC, 1978); Fritz Ferdinand Müller, Deutschland-Zanzibar-Ostafrika: Geschichte einer deutschen Kolonialeroberung 1884-1890 (Berlin, 1990 [1959]).

97 Gerhard Weidenfeller, VDA: Verein für das Deutschtum im Ausland: Allgemeiner Deutscher Schulverein (1881-1918). Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des deutschen Nationalismus und Imperialismus im Kaiserreich (Berne, 1976).

98 Geoff Eley, Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change after Bismarck (London, 1980), 366; Roger Chickering, We Men Who Feel Most German: A Cultural Study of the Pan-German League 1886-1914 (London, 1984), 24-73; Wilhelm Deist, Flottenpolitik und Flottenpropaganda: Das Nachrichtenbüro des Reichsmarineamts 1897-1914 (Stuttgart, 1976); Richard Owen, ‘Military-Industrial Relations: Krupp and the Imperial Navy Office’, in Evans (ed.), Society and Politics, 71-89; Marilyn Shevin Coetzee, The German Army League: Popular Nationalism in Wilhelmine Germany (New York, 1990); Richard W. Tims, Germanizing Prussian Poland: The H-K-T Society and the Struggle for the Eastern Marches in the German Empire 1894-1919 (New York, 1941); Adam Galos et al., Die Hakatisten: Der Deutsche Ostmarkenverein 1894-1934 (Berlin, 1966).

99 Chickering, We Men, 128, 268-71; Coetzee, The German Army League, 19-23; Ute Planert, Antifeminismus im Kaiserreich: Diskurs, soziale Formation und politische Mentalität (Göttingen, 1998), 118-76.

100 Chickering, We Men, 102-21.

101 Ibid., 284-6; Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte III. 1071-81; extracts in English translation in Roderick Stackelberg and Sally A. Winkle (eds.), The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts (London, 2002), 20-26.

102 Chickering, We Men, 74-97, 284-6.

103 Ibid., 122-32; also Klaus Bergmann, Agrarromantik und Grossstadtfeindschaft (Meisenheim, 1970).

104 Chickering, We Men, 253-91; Eley, Reshaping, 316-34; Dirk Stegmann, Die Erben Bismarcks: Parteien und Verbände in der Spätphase des Wilhelminischen Deutschlands: Sammlungspolitik 1897-1914 (Cologne, 1970), 352-48; Fritz Fischer, War of Illusions: German Politics from 1911 to 1914 (London, 1975 [1969]).

105 Iris Hamel, Völkischer Verband und nationale Gewerkschaft: Der Deutschnationale Handlungsgehilfenverband, 1893-1933 (Frankfurt am Main, 1967); Planert, Antifeminismus, 71-9.

106 Extracts from the memorandum, and the Kaiser’s response, can be found in Röhl, From Bismarck to Hitler, 49-52, and Stackelberg and Winkle (eds.), The Nazi Germany Sourcebook, 29-30.

107 Hartmut Pogge-von Strandmann, ‘Staatsstreichpläne, Alldeutsche und Bethmann Hollweg’, in idem and Imanuel Geiss, Die Erforderlichkeit des Unmöglichen: Deutschland am Vorabend des ersten Weltkrieges (Frankfurt am Main, 1965), 7-45; the texts of the replies by Bethmann and the Kaiser are printed on pages 32-9; the Kaiser’s relations with Chamberlain are documented in Röhl, From Bismarck to Hitler, 41-8.

108 For an excellent discussion of contemporary views on the likely length of the war, see Hew Strachan, The First World War, I: To Arms (Oxford, 2001), 1005-14.

109 Martin Kitchen, The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916-1918 (London, 1976). The best recent general survey is Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918 (Cambridge, 1998).

110 Among a huge literature, Figes, A People’s Tragedy stands out as the best recent survey.

111 Robert Service, Lenin: A Political Life (3 vols., London, 1985-95) is the standard biography; Lenin’s attempts to stimulate a revolution in Germany are best approached through the activities of the Soviet emissary Karl Radek; see Marie-Luise Goldbach, Karl Radek und die deutsch-sowjetischen Beziehungen 1918-1923 (Bonn, 1973 and Warren Lerner, Karl Radek: The Last Internationalist (Stanford, Calif., 1970).

112 Heinrich August Winkler, Von der Revolution zur Stabilisierung: Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung in der Weimarer Republik 1918 bis 1924 (Bonn, 1984), esp. 114-34, and 468-552.

113 Arno J. Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Counterrevolution at Versailles 1918-1919 (2nd edn., New York, 1969 [1967]) for the general context; Oszkár Jászi, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Hungary (London, 1924), for a contemporary account of events.

114 Berliner Tageblatt, ‘I August 1918, cited in David Welch, Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914-1918: The Sins of Omission (London, 2000), 241. See also Aribert Reimann, Der grosse Krieg der Sprachen: Untersuchungen zur historischen Semantik in Deutschland und England zur Zeit des Ersten Weltkriegs (Essen, 2000).

115 For the best recent brief account, see Chickering, Imperial Germany, 178-91.

116 Welch, Germany, 241-2; Wilhelm Deist, ‘Censorship and Propaganda in Germany during the First World War‘, in Jean-Jacques Becker and Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau (eds.), Les Sociétés européennes et la guerre de 1914-1918 (Paris, 1990), 199-210; Alice Goldfarb Marquis, ’Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War‘, Journal of Contemporary History, 13 (1978), 467-98.

117 Fritz Fischer, Germany’s Aims in the First World War (London, 1967 [1961]), passim.

118 Bullitt Lowry, Armistice 1918 (Kent, Ohio, 1996); Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle (eds.), At the Eleventh Hour: Reflections, Hopes and Anxieties at the Closing of the Great War, 1918 (Barnsley, 1998).

119 Stenographischer Bericht über die öffentlichen Verhandlungen des 15. Untersucbungsausschusses der verfassungsgebenden Nationalversammlung, II (Berlin, 1920), 700-701 (18 November 1919). See also Erich Ludendorff, Kriegfuhrung und Politik (Berlin, 1922), and Paul von Hindenburg, Aus meinem Leben (Leipzig, 1920), 403; more generally, Friedrich Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen, ‘“Dolchstoss-Diskussion” und “Dolchstosslegende” im Wandel von vier Jahrzehnten‘, in Waldemar Besson and Friedrich Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen (eds.), Geschichtsund Gegenwartsbewusstsein (Göttingen, 1963), 122-60. Also, more recently, Jeffrey Verhey, The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth and Mobilization in Germany (Cambridge, 2000), 219-23, and Chickering, Imperial Germany, 189-91.

120 William II, My Memoirs 1878-1918 (London, 1922), 282-3. More generally, see Wilhelm Deist, ‘The Military Collapse of the German Empire: The Reality Behind the Stab-in-the-Back Myth‘, War in History, 3 (1996), 186-207.

121 Friedrich Ebert, Schriften, Aufzeichnungen, Reden (2 vols., Dresden, 1936), II. 127; Ebert went on to blame the defeat on ‘the preponderance of the enemy in men and material’ (127).

122 Gerhard A. Ritter and.Susanne Miller (eds.), Die deutsche Revolution 1918- 1919 - Dokumente (Frankfurt am Main, 1968), is an excellent selection of documents; Francis L. Carsten, Revolution in Central Europe 1918-1919 (London, 1972) is a good narrative.

123 From a large literature, see Harold Temperley. (ed.), A History of the Peace Conference of Paris (6 vols., London, 1920-24), and Manfred F. Boemeke et al. (eds.), The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years (Washington, DC, 1998), a collection of scholarly papers issued on the eightieth anniversary of the end of the war.

124 Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy.

125 Arthur S. Link (ed.), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson (69 vols., Princeton, 1984), XL. 534-9; more generally, Lloyd E. Ambrosius, Wilsonian Statecraft: Theory and Practice of Liberal Internationalism during World War I (Wilmington, Del., 1991), Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York, 1992), and Arthur Walworth, Wilson and his Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 (New York, 1986).

126 Winkler, Von der Revolution, 94-5; Carsten, Revolution, 271-98.

127 John Horne and Alan Kramer, German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial (London, 2001),345-5 5, 446- 50; Gerd Hankel, Die Leipziger Prozesse: Deutsche Kriegsverbrechen und ihre strafrechtliche Verfolgung nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg (Hamburg, 2003).

128 Bruce Kent, The Spoils of War: The Politics, Economics and Diplomacy of Reparations 1918-1932 (Oxford, 1989).

129 Alan Sharp, The Versailles Settlement: Peacekeeping in Paris, 1919 (London, 1991).

130 Fischer, Germany’s Aims, passim.

131 For a good defence of the treaties, see Macmillan, Peacemakers.

132 Abel Testimony (hereinafter AT) 114, in Peter H. Merkl, Political Violence under the Swastika: 581 Early Nazis (Princeton, 1975), 191.

133 AT 334, ibid., 192-3.

134 AT 248, ibid., 194-5.

135 See the classic, and still standard, study by Fischer, Germany’s Aims.

136 Eley, Reshaping, 333, 339-42; Dirk Stegmann, ‘Zwischen Repression und Manipulation: Konservative Machteliten und Arbeiter- und Angestelltenbewegung 1910-1918: Ein Beitrag zur Vorgeschichte der DAP/NSDAP’, Archiv fur Sozialgeschichte, 12 (1972), 351-432.

137 Heinz Hagenlücke, Die deutsche Vaterlandspartei: Die nationale Rechte am Ende des Kaiserreiches (Düsseldorf, 1997); Verhey, The Spirit of 1914, 178-85; Mosse, The Crisis, 218-26.

138 Ernst Jünger, In Stahlgewittern: Aus dem Tagebuch eines Stosstruppführers (Hanover, 1920). For a new English edition, see idem, Storm of Steel (London, 2003).

139 Richard Bessel, Germany after the First World War (Oxford, 1993), 256-61.

140 Theodore Abel, Why Hitler Came to Power (Cambridge, Mass., 1986 [1938]), 21, quoting Frankfurter Zeitung, 27 November 1918.

141 Quoted in Abel, Why Hitler, 24, testimony 4.3.4, also 2.3.2.

142 Ibid., 26, quoting testimony 4.1.2.

143 AT 199, in Merkl, Political Violence, 167.

144 Testimony 2.8.5, in Abel, Why Hitler, 2.7-8.

145 Christoph Jahr, Gewöhnliche Soldaten: Desertion und Deserteure im deutschen und britischen Heer 1914-1918 (Göttingen, 1998); Benjamin Ziemann, ‘Fahnenflucht im deutschen Heer 1914-1918’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 55 (1996), 93-130.

146 Wolfgang Kruse, ‘Krieg und Klassenheer: Zur Revolutionierung der deutschen Armee im Ersten Weltkrieg‘, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 22 (1996), 530-61.

147 Merkl, Political Violence, 152-72.

148 Robert W. Whalen, Bitter Wounds: German Victims of the Great War, 1914- 1939 (Ithaca, NY, 1984 ); Deborah Cohen, The War Come Home: Disabled Veterans in Britain and Germany, 1914-1918 (Berkeley, 2001); Bessel, Germany, 274-9.

149 Volker R. Berghahn, Der Stahlhelm: Bund der Frontsoldaten 1918-1935 (Dusseldorf, 1966), 13-26, 105-6, 286; Stahlhelm und Staat (8 May 1927), excerpted and translated in Anton Kaes et al. (eds.), The Weimar Republic Sourcebook (Berkeley, 1994), 339-40.

150 Bessel, Germany, 283-84; also, Ulrich Heinemann, Die verdrängte Niederlage: Politische Öffentlichkeit und Kriegsschuldfrage in der Weimarer Republik (Göttingen,1983).

151 Frevert, Die kasernierte Nation; Geoff Eley, ‘Army, State and Civil Society’ in idem, From Unification to Nazism, 85-109; and more generally Berghahn (ed.), Militarismus.

152 Evans, Kneipengespräche, 31-2, 339·

153 · Bessel, Germany, 256-70.

154 Sebastian Haffner, Defying Hitler: A Memoir (London, 2002), 10-15.

155 Michael Wildt, Generation des Unbedingten: Das Führungskorps des Reichssicherbeitshauptamtes (Hamburg, 2002), 41-52.

156 Berghahn, Der Stahlhelm, esp. 65-6; Karl Rohe, Das Reichsbanner Schwarz Rot Gold: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte und Struktur der politischen Kampfverbände zur Zeit der Weimarer Republik (Dusseldorf, 1966); Kurt G. P. Schuster, Der Rote Frontkdmpferbund 1924-1929 : Beiträge zur Geschichte und Organisationsstruktur eines politischen Kampfbundes (Dusseldorf, 1975).

157 James M. Diehl, Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany (Bloomington, Ind., 1977), provides a clear guide through the undergrowth of the paramilitaries. See also Martin Sabrow, Der Rathenaumord: Rekonstruktion einer Verschwörung gegen die Republik von Weimar (Munich, 1994), for an excellent investigation of the world of the armed conspirators.

158 Erhard Lucas, Märzrevolution im Ruhrgebiet (3 vols., Frankfurt am Main, 1970-78), a classic of politically committed history; George Eliasberg, Der Ruhrkrieg von 1920 (Bonn, 1974), a more sober, less detailed account, sympathetic to the moderate Social Democrats.

159 See the classic study of this literature by Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies (2 vols., Cambridge, 1987 and 1989 [1978]); for some reservations, Evans, Rereading, 115-18.

160 On the Free Corps, Robert G. L. Waite, Vanguard of Nazism. The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Germany 1918-1923 (Harvard, 1952), is still the best account in English. See also Hagen Schulze, Freikorps und Republik 1918-1920 (Boppard, 1969), and Emil J. Gumbel, Verschwörer: Zur Geschichte und Soziologie der deutschen nationalistischen Geheimbünde 1918-1924 (Heidelberg, 1979 [1924]).

161 Volker Ullrich, Der ruhelose Rebell: Karl Plättner 1893-1945. Eine Biographie (Munich, 2000); and Manfred Gebhardt, Max Hoelz: Wege und Irrwege eines Revolutionärs (Berlin, 1983).

The Coming of the Third Reich
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