Chapter 2: Getting Started: Basic Know-How, Ingredients, and Troubleshooting

Getting Started with Kneadlessly Simple Recipes: Read This First

Each Kneadlessly Simple recipe provides an ingredient list and directions, but this chapter provides some additional details and background information to help you carry out the instructions correctly. It covers everything from how to measure flour and ready the ice water properly to adjusting dough consistency to deciding on a rising method, and how to judge loaf doneness. To ensure smooth sailing on your bread baking journey, read through this section before you try any recipes.

Choosing a Bowl—During the first rise, some doughs triple or even quadruple in bulk, so, following the recipe, use a large bowl (one that holds at least 4 quarts) or a very large bowl (one that holds at least 6 quarts) to avoid any chance of overflows. Stainless steel bowls are lightweight, durable, readily available, and economical, but ceramic or even plastic will do. Plastic holds odors and flavors, so be sure plastic containers are squeaky clean.

Measuring Flour—Flour is the key ingredient in bread, so accurate measurements are very important. Professional bakers always weigh their flour, and, though not essential, this is the more accurate method for the home baker, too. If you have a kitchen scale, use the flour weights that are noted in parentheses after the cup measurements in each recipe. Otherwise, using a set of cups designed for measuring dry ingredients, dip the appropriate cup into the flour sack or canister, overfilling the dry measure slightly, then sweep across its top with a long-bladed spatula or straight-edged knife to even the surface. Don't tap or shake the cup or try to compact the flour. Don't try to fluff it up either.

Even careful measuring with the right cups will not yield the same quantity of flour every time because the volume of flour is affected by many factors, including the amount of settling during production and shipping—and even whether you're scooping the flour straight from the bag or from a canister. So, it's not uncommon when filling a 1-cup dry measure by dipping and sweeping to yield 4.7 ounces one time, 5 ounces another, and 5.2 ounces the next. Kneadlessly Simple recipes always compensate for this variability by specifying what consistency the dough should be at key points. Be sure to add more flour or water as necessary to achieve the dough consistency indicated.

Readying Ice Water—All Kneadlessly Simple recipes initially call for ice water—that is, water chilled to around 50°F by adding ice cubes; this doesn't have to be exact. To obtain the correct temperature, fill a large measure designed for liquids with the amount of water specified; then add a heaping cup of ice cubes and stir vigorously for 30 seconds. Finally, measure out the exact amount of water needed (first discard the cubes) and incorporate it into the dry ingredients as directed. Recipes occasionally call for tablespoons or half-tablespoons of water and other ingredients. If you don't have a ½ tablespoon measure, note that 1½ teaspoons equals ½ tablespoon. In most cases, tap water is perfectly satisfactory, but if yours is heavily chlorinated or otherwise unpleasant-tasting, try bottled water and see if your breads improve.

Mixing by Hand or Mixer—Remember that mixing, whether by hand or electric mixer, is not done to take the place of kneading, but simply to mix together the ingredients. The first key step is thoroughly stirring together the dry ingredients so that the salt and yeast are evenly distributed. For recipes that call for all ingredients to be incorporated before the first rise, the next step is to add the liquid ingredients into the dry ones. Simply stirring vigorously with a large spoon for a minute or two is often the easiest approach. If you prefer to use a mixer, it should be a heavy-duty model fitted with the paddle beater; the dough hook normally works best after the gluten develops. (Most lightweight mixers aren't powerful enough to mix bread doughs.)

When adding ingredients after the first rise, note that the dough will be rubbery (due to the gluten development), so it will take a bit more effort to stir in the eggs, milk powder, additional flour, etc. A heavy-duty mixer fitted with its dough hook will make incorporating the second batch of ingredients easier, though this can be done by hand, too.

Correcting Dough Consistency—Often, directions call for adding enough flour to yield a stiff, or hard-to-stir (but not dry) consistency, but occasionally, a softer dough is needed. For best results, carefully follow the specific instructions for each bread. In many cases, correcting the consistency to create a stiffer dough before the second rise is especially important, as overly wet doughs can come out gummy or sink during baking. Incidentally, due to the fermentation process, it's common for a dough that was very stiff when first mixed to be moister after the first rise, requiring the addition of more flour before its second rise. Doughs containing an abundance of seeds and dried fruits, in contrast, tend to end up stiffer and drier, as these ingredients absorb a lot of excess moisture.

Spritzing (or Brushing), Slashing, and Covering the Dough—Recipes always call for brushing or spritzing doughs with oil (or perhaps butter) to prevent the surface from drying out during the long rising period. The easiest method is to use nonstick spray; be sure to use a high-quality brand containing corn oil or other neutral-flavored oil. Or, if you prefer, simply brush the dough surface evenly with a little corn oil using a pastry brush, rubber scraper, or your fingertips. When a recipe calls for slashing a loaf or cutting dough into portions, do this with a well-oiled serrated knife or, even better, with oiled kitchen shears, as these doughs are usually too rubbery and soft for a plain knife to work well. To further prevent surface drying, cover the bowl tightly with plastic wrap. As a precaution against the dough rising more than expected and sticking to the plastic, you may want to spray the plastic with nonstick cooking spray before the first rise. Recipes routinely call for coating the plastic wrap with nonstick spray before the second rise to prevent any chance of the plastic sticking to the loaf top and marring its appearance.

Estimating Rising Times and Choosing a Rising Method—The yeast are living organisms, so their growth rate depends greatly on the temperature of the dough and the room. As a result, the rising time ranges given in recipes must be considered rough guidelines only. In fact, one portion of a dough set out in a 75°F kitchen will likely rise in half the time it takes another portion of it placed in a 65°F spot. If your room is warmer than normal, simply anticipate that the yeast will grow rapidly and check the dough sooner than is indicated; if the environment is colder, expect that they will grow slowly and the dough will rise more slowly than is indicated. If you happen to live at high altitude, take that into consideration too; the lower atmospheric pressure allows bread to rise 25 to 50 percent faster than normally.

Since the first rise really needs to be cool and unhurried for optimum bread flavor and texture, in warm weather try to find the coolest spot in the house, for example, a table near an air-conditioning vent or unit, or in a shaded, ground floor area. It's fine to speed up or slow down the second rise to suit your schedule by selecting either an "accelerated" rise that provides an extra-warm environment or an "extended" refrigerator rise that provides a very chilly one.

For an accelerated rise (which can reduce second rise time by a third to a half), bring a 1-cup glass measure of tap water to a boil in a microwave oven. Let the cup stand for a minute or two to avoid any chance of being burned by an eruption of steam, then set it in one corner of the microwave. Set the dough (in its baking pan and covered) inside on the other side of the microwave, close the door, and let the yeast thrive in the comfy, draft-free environment. This rising method is particularly handy in a cold house, when a recipe indicates the dough is normally very slow-rising, or when, for whatever reason, you want your bread done as soon as possible. In a few recipes in which the dough rises particularly slowly, it's suggested that after an hour or so in the microwave, the dough should be temporarily removed and the water brought to a boil again to provide a second burst of warmth for the yeast.

Another convenience option, the extended (refrigerator) rise method lets you put off baking for up to 24 hours for many doughs and up to two days for a few. The cold temperature causes the yeast fermentation and dough rising to slow dramatically. To "restart" the rise, let the dough stand on the counter until it returns to room temperature (usually 1½ to 2½ hours), then proceed with a regular or accelerated rise. Note that holding a dough longer than the number of hours specified in the recipe can debilitate the yeast, resulting in a denser baked good.

All recipes suggest how high doughs should rise in their pans before baking. Follow this instruction carefully, as some doughs spring up and do much of their rising after they're in the oven, and others rise very little during baking. If you aren't sure whether a dough is raised enough, test it by pressing a finger into the surface: If the indention stays instead of gradually filling up again, the dough is sufficiently raised and ready for baking. When a loaf inadvertently rises more than it should, it's best to stir it down, return it to the pan, and let it rise again, as over-raised doughs have a tendency to sink or collapse during baking.

Selecting the Right Baking Pan or Dutch Oven—To keep things simple, this book calls for two basic loaf pan sizes: a 9 x 5-inch pan or an 8½ x 4½-inch pan. But in fact, pans with similar dimensions, say 8¾ x 5¼ inches or 8¼ x 4¾ inches, will work just as well. The critical factor is how much each pan holds, so the finished bread fills the pan attractively but doesn't hang over the sides. The larger pan should have a volume of about 8 cups (2 quarts), and the smaller one should hold about 6 cups (1½ quarts). To determine the volume, simply add enough water to fill the pan to the rim, then measure out the amount of water used. Occasionally, flat 9 x 13-inch baking pans or 10 x 15-inch rimmed baking sheets are also called for. Here again, pans with similar dimensions will work fine.

Bundt-style and similar decorative pans, plain pans with a center tube, and soufflé dishes used for some of these breads come in a confusing assortment of metric and customary measurement sizes, so simply choose a pan with the volume specified by the recipe and with the shape you'd like for the finished loaf. Both for decorative metal pans and plain loaf pans, a sturdy construction and medium-colored finish will yield the best results. Flimsy pans don't hold or distribute the heat evenly and can result in burning on the bottom or sides. Very dark or black pan finishes can cause over-browning and shiny, aluminum foil—colored surfaces can lead to under-browning. Most nonstick and regular metal finishes (either is fine) are in the medium gray to brown range, which is ideal. Ovenproof glass and ceramic bake-ware are other acceptable options, though be aware that they sometimes shorten baking times or require a slightly lower oven temperature than metal pans.

For the breads baked in a covered Dutch oven, casserole, or very large ovenproof saucepan or pot, the volume of the container must be at least large enough to allow the loaf to fully expand during baking. The pot should also be straight-sided or flared at the top; as I discovered, if it narrows at the top, the loaf can't be removed in one piece! For most of the large, rustic pot boules in this book, a heavy, 3½- to 4-quart flat-bottomed pot is the optimum size. A 3-quart pot can be used if it has a domed rather than flat lid, as this allows space for the dough to rise slightly above the pot rim during baking.

A container holding more than 4 quarts will do if that's what you have, but the dough will spread out in the space, producing a flat-looking loaf. (It will still taste fine, of course!) While pricey imported enamel-coated Dutch ovens are a good choice for the pot breads, plain, seasoned cast iron or other nonreactive metal or enameled pots, such as those sold by American manufacturers (or handed down by Grandma!), are equally serviceable.

Adjusting Oven Racks and Preheating the Oven—Every recipe indicates not only the thermostat setting, but where to place the loaf in the oven. In the majority of ovens, the rack position just below the one in the center (but not the lowest one) is the best for baking the breads in the book; the bottom and interior will bake through and the top won't become overdone. For an oven with an unusual rack configuration, just try to place loaves so their bottoms are about 4 inches from the bottom heating element. Of course, both baking and browning vary from oven to oven, so if you find that breads are burning on the bottom, just place them a little further up from the heat source the next time you bake. Any time the tops of loaves are over-browning, simply cover them with a sheet of aluminum foil.

Many breads benefit from a strong initial blast of heat, so be sure to preheat the oven as directed. Each time the oven door opens, the temperature drops 25° to 50°F, which is why directions sometimes call for selecting one temperature, then immediately lowering it once the loaf is in the oven.

Testing for Doneness—Perhaps the trickiest part of making Kneadlessly Simple breads is telling when they are completely done. Due to the ample water required for the "micro-kneading," doughs are moister than in conventional recipes and routinely take longer to bake through. When in doubt, always err on the side of over-baking. These doughs are moist enough that they won't dry out from a few extra minutes in the oven, and the extra time will help eliminate any chance of sogginess in the middle. Plus, deeper browning of the crust also deepens flavor.

Just rapping a loaf on top or observing crust color is never sufficient for judging doneness: The most foolproof way is use an instant-read, or probe, thermometer and bake to the degree specified in the recipe. To test, insert the probe deep into the thickest part of the loaf, but for an accurate reading be careful not to touch the pan. Or, if you don't wish to invest in a thermometer, insert a skewer, cake tester, or thin knife deep into the loaf center, then withdraw it and check the crumbs on the tip. If the particles look wet or gooey, continue baking until they look dry and slightly crumbly. Then, always bake for an extra 5 to 10 minutes to be sure the center is fully done. (If the outside begins to over-brown, cover it with foil.)

Storing Breads—Due to their moistness Kneadlessly Simple loaves keep better than most homemade breads, but still gradually lose their freshness and appeal in a few days. Always start by putting freshly baked breads on a rack and cooling them thoroughly before packing for storage. Otherwise, moisture that condenses can be trapped and lead to deterioration and molding.

The particular storage instructions provided in each recipe depend on whether the bread needs to stay crisp or soft. Soft breads are packed airtight in a plastic bag or container, or in foil, to prevent them from drying out. To retain their crispness, crusty breads need some air circulation, so they should be placed in a paper or cloth bag, or wrapped a clean kitchen towel. Once packed as specified, loaves will keep in a cool, dry spot (not in the refrigerator) for up to three days.

While it might seem like a good idea to refrigerate breads, this actually speeds staling by causing rapid retrogradation, a process that crystallizes the starch molecules. To keep a bread longer than three days, freeze it in a heavy, airtight plastic freezer bag for up to two months. Some retrogradation will slowly occur, but it can be mostly reversed by wrapping the thawed bread loosely in foil and reheating it at 400°F for 15 to 20 minutes. Refresh individual slices or rolls by wrapping them in a tea towel and microwaving them on 50 percent power for around 15 to 20 seconds; use immediately.

Ingredients

Since the emphasis in Kneadlessly Simple is on keeping things simple, you don't need a lot of ingredients or to go to much expense to get started baking bread. Here's a rundown of the basics:

Wheat Flour Products—Because it has greater gluten-developing potential than any other grain, wheat flour is the foundation flour in yeast baking. Much like a balloon, the stretchy protein formed during the initial stirring and subsequent "micro-kneading" traps the carbon dioxide gas released during yeast fermentation and gradually expands, in the process leavening the bread. Which is why all but the small sample of gluten-free breads in the book include at least some wheat flour and many loaves are made entirely of it.

Three wheat flours, widely available in supermarkets, are called for in the book: all-purpose unbleached white flour, white unbleached bread flour, and whole wheat flour. Both the all-purpose white flour and bread flour are produced from the starchy part (the endosperm) of the wheat kernel. These flours are much lighter in color, milder, and finer-textured than whole wheat flour because the coarse, fiber-rich "shell" of the kernel (the bran) and the oily, nutrient-rich heart (the germ) are omitted. The two differ primarily in their amount of gluten—all-purpose white flour usually has between 7.5 and 9.5 percent gluten and white bread flour has between 11.5 and 13 percent. The extra gluten in the bread flour gives it more gas-trapping power and ultimately results in airier loaves, so keep this in mind in recipes that give you a choice between all-purpose or bread flour.

Although some brands of all-purpose white flour and bread flour are bleached, seek out and use unbleached flours whenever possible. Unbleached flour retains carotenoid components that hold the natural grain flavor. Bleaching agents not only introduce unnecessary chemicals and may leave a faint aftertaste, but they also remove certain flavor components and the creamy color that help give bread its appeal. It's also worth sticking with top-quality brands of flour to ensure consistency from batch to batch, freshness, and grain carefully grown, harvested, stored, and milled using the best practices. Considering that flour is the most fundamental ingredient in bread, this is not the place to skimp or settle for second-rate.

As its name suggests, whole wheat flour is made from the whole kernel. The bran and germ provide beneficial fiber and nutrients, but also lend a slightly bitter, "wheaty" flavor and brown color, and, due to their weight, produce a more compact loaf. If you want to increase whole-grain consumption but find these characteristics distracting or unpleasant, consider trying white whole wheat flour, a whole wheat flour made from a relatively new strain of wheat that has a milder taste and lighter color (but the same nutritional benefits). The King Arthur brand is the most widely available.

Several recipes in the book not only call for whole wheat flour but also cracked wheat (broken-up wheat kernels, also called "berries") and/or additions of wheat bran and wheat germ. Because the highly perishable oily germ particles remain in whole wheat flour, cracked wheat, and germ, store these in the refrigerator, or discard after three months. White wheat flours can be kept airtight in a cool, dry spot for up to a year.

Other Flours and Grain Products—A variety of other flours and grain products, including cornmeal, corn grits (coarsely ground dried corn), and cornstarch; rolled oats; rye flour; and white and brown rice flours and cooked rice grains, contribute their distinct flavor, texture, color, and unique set of nutrients to certain Kneadlessly Simple breads. If you are counting on these ingredients to boost nutrition, be sure to check labels before you buy. Sometimes, the germ is removed from cornmeal or grits to increase the shelf life, so look for the words "whole-grain" or "un-degerminated" on the packaging. Whole-grain cornmeal and grits, as well as all the other whole-grain products—rolled oats, brown rice, and rye flour—stale rapidly, so store them airtight in the refrigerator. Most of these items are stocked in supermarkets, sometimes in a "whole grains" section, sometimes with the baking supplies or cereals.

Bread Yeast—Yeast is called for in modest quantities in Kneadlessly Simple but, like wheat flour, it's an essential ingredient. The yeast amounts needed are smaller than in old-fashioned recipes because the long, cool first rise allows ample time for the yeast organisms to become active and do their work. Adding extra yeast is not only unnecessary—it can cause overly rapid fermentation of the dough, which in turn can produce unpleasantly strong- or sour-tasting bread. Since the quantities used are small, the usual ¼-ounce commercial yeast packets contain enough for several batches of bread. Measure out the amount called for, then, to keep the remainder fresh, close the packet and place it in an airtight plastic baggie or small jar. Note the date when the packet was opened and refrigerate the container; use the yeast within 3 months. If you bake bread often, the 4-ounce jars of yeast sold in some markets will be more convenient and economical. These can be kept (refrigerated) for 6 months after opening.

All the recipes in this book have been tested with "highly active," fast-rising dry yeast (sometimes also labeled as instant or bread machine yeast). Ironically, though, this yeast isn't used to hasten rising. I call for this type because it's fuss-free and virtually foolproof when stored and handled properly: The particles are finer than those of regular active dry yeast, so it can be combined directly with the dry ingredients without preliminary proofing in warm water. (Skipping the proofing completely eliminates any chance of damaging the yeast due to overheating.) Regular active dry yeast works better when hydrated in warm water first, so is not as convenient or well suited to the Kneadlessly Simple cool rise approach. Old-fashioned compressed or cake yeast isn't suitable for these recipes either.

Salt—Salt is indispensable partly because bread tastes bland and dull without it. But salt slightly inhibits yeast, preventing it from growing too fast and over-fermenting the dough. Equally important, salt tightens and strengthens gluten strands, making the dough better able to trap carbon dioxide and puff up well. Every recipe calls for table salt, as it is economical and, when used in dough, tastes virtually indistinguishable from sea salt or other more expensive options. Just in case you prefer to use a coarse crystal salt, be aware that table salt is more compact, so 1 teaspoon roughly equals 1½ to 2 teaspoons of the coarse crystals. A few recipes that use salt as a garnish call for sea salt or other coarse salt to add visual and textural interest and flavor; here, regular table salt won't deliver satisfactory results.

Water—The role of water is vital in yeast breads: The yeast can't grow and the gliadin and glutenin molecules in flour can't join together to form gluten without it. Water, in the form of steam, also promotes crust crisping and browning by encouraging enzyme activity that breaks down surface starches into sugar-like compounds during the first 12 to 15 minutes in the oven. Steam also initially keeps the crust soft enough to allow the loaf to expand early in the baking period. (This is why it's important to follow instructions to brush a loaf with water and/or create steam in the oven just prior to beginning the baking. The steam no longer serves a useful purpose and actually hinders crisping once the first stage of baking is completed, so there's no need to replenish it later on.)

Unless your tap water is unpleasant-tasting, it is fine for making bread, although bottled spring or distilled water can be substituted; some bakers insist upon spring water. (A side-by-side comparison of a recipe made using tap and bottled water should indicate whether the latter makes a difference with your breads.) If the off taste of your water is due to heavy chlorination, letting it stand for 24 hours will allow the chlorine to dissipate.

Fats—Corn oil (or other nearly flavorless vegetable oil), olive oil, and unsalted butter are the types of fat called for in Kneadlessly Simple recipes. All three increase crust tenderness, promote browning, and add a pleasant smoothness, or mouthfeel, to the crumb, and in doing so help give various breads their distinctive character. The crust and crumb tenderizing properties increase as the amount of fat increases, which is why fat-laden breads such as brioche have a velvety, cake-like consistency. Olive oil and particularly butter also contribute flavor and aroma, although since all fats are flavor carriers, corn oil heightens the taste of the other ingredients, too. Remember that besides having markedly different flavors, these fats solidify at different temperatures, necessitating completely different methods of incorporation into recipes: Corn oil will stay fluid when added directly to ice water. Olive oil and butter will solidify, so must instead be separately added to dry ingredients or doughs.

Unsalted butter is the best choice for baking bread because the total salt content of the dough is easier to control and because assessing the quality and freshness of butter is easier when it lacks salt. Extra-virgin olive oil also lends a fruitier taste than "regular" olive oil, though either can be used. Due the tendency of all fats to become rancid during storage and their ability to pick up and carry flavors, for good-tasting bread, be scrupulous about using only very fresh butter and oils.

Sweeteners—Granulated and brown sugar, honey, and molasses (and in one recipe, maple syrup) have the obvious effect of adding sweetness and flavor to yeast breads, and they also promote tenderness and browning. But there are other equally important (though less obvious) consequences to adding sweeteners, and these make it risky to casually increase or decrease amounts or ignore instructions on when and how to add them. In small quantities, the granular sweeteners (white and brown sugar) encourage yeast growth by providing a readily fermentable source of food. But too much granular sugar hinders yeast organisms, because as it dissolves it draws up water they need. Increasing or decreasing liquid sweeteners also dramatically alters the dough by changing the proportion of water, which may necessitate an adjustment in the amount of flour. For best results, use clover honey, "regular" (never blackstrap) molasses, and medium amber maple syrup; these impart flavor without overpowering the other taste and aroma components of bread. Several recipes have been designed so that either honey or molasses can be used; either will work well, though honey delivers more sweetness, and the molasses more color and robust flavor.

Dairy Products—Milk products, including instant nonfat dry milk powder, buttermilk powder, and yogurt, and eggs are the dairy enrichments occasionally used in Kneadlessly Simple. These increase the food value of bread by increasing the protein, fat, sugar, and vitamins and minerals, of course, but are equally important for heightening and deepening flavor, increasing crumb softness and tenderness, and promoting crust browning and sheen. In fact, eggs enhance crust appearance so effectively that they are often used as a finishing wash or glaze that is brushed on loaves. Be sure to use only "drinking quality" name-brand instant nonfat milk; the particles are finer (facilitating easier incorporation into doughs) and the taste is much cleaner and more appealing than that of discount or generic brands.

Seeds, Nuts, and Dried Fruits—While these additions boost fiber and nutrients, they are even more important in lending character to certain breads by giving them a uniquely appealing appearance, taste, and texture. Sometimes dried fruits and seeds are added during the first rise so they will have plenty of time to plump and soften (or perhaps become chewy), as well as become more digestible. However, where crunchiness is desired, seeds and nuts are added later, either before or after the second rise. In general, when raisins and other dried fruits are added before the first rise, directions call for partially hydrating them by rinsing them under hot water first. This helps ensure that they won't absorb too much moisture and discourage the fermentation and gluten-developing process. This initial partial hydration is often skipped when they are added later, as their gradual plumping during the second rise helps stiffen the dough and ready it for shaping and baking.

Freshness is vital for all these additions: Seeds and nuts are rich in fat, so must be fresh to taste good. And leathery, dried-out raisins, dried cranberries, and such will be tough and tasteless and can even dry out doughs. All these items are usually most economical when purchased in bulk; health food and baking supply stores also turn over their supplies of seeds, nuts, and dried fruits rapidly, which helps to ensure their freshness. Store your purchases airtight and refrigerated.

Troubleshooting Kneadlessly Simple Breads

Possible Problems, Causes, And Remedies

The Kneadlessly Simple method is simple and builds in many safeguards, so that most of the problems listed below are very unlikely to occur. But just in case, here are some problems, possible causes, and suggested remedies.

No Visible Bubbling or Dough Rising and No Yeasty Aroma during the First Rise

Yeast was omitted.

Correct the oversight by combining the yeast with ¼ cup flour, sprinkling it over the dough, then stirring vigorously to incorporate.

Yeast wasn't viable (due to improper or overly long storage or use of "expired" yeast).

Correct the problem by adding yeast from a different, fresher package using the method above.

Dense, Heavy Loaf or Insufficient or Extremely Slow Rising

Yeast near or past its expiration date.

Yeast organisms gradually lose potency and eventually die. Even "unexpired" but improperly stored yeast may no longer be fully active and potent, so don't take a chance on it. (Once a yeast packet has been opened, it should be placed in an airtight container, refrigerated, and used within 3 months.)

Insufficient amount of yeast was added by mistake.

Be sure you use the right measure from your set of measuring spoons. Measure out the yeast by overfilling the appropriate spoon (or spoons) and sweeping across the top until the quantity is level.

Excessive quantities of yeast-inhibiting ingredients were incorporated into dough.

Even relatively small quantities of certain spices, herbs, salt, and other ingredients can hinder yeast activity, so resist the impulse to change amounts of recipe seasonings.

Unexpectedly large amounts of whole grains, fat, sugar, and/or salt were incorporated.

Kneadlessly Simple recipes call for the right amount of yeast to accommodate these yeast-inhibiting ingredients, but if substitutions are made, proportions can be off and cause poor rising.

Rising took place at a very chilly room temperature and/or the dough contained colder than normal ingredients.

If the room or ingredients are unusually cold, factor this in, then simply allow extra time for the dough to rise. It needs to reach the height specified in the recipe.

Loaf was baked before the dough had enough time to rise fully.

Some doughs rise a lot in the oven, others (particularly those with a high percentage of whole grains) don't. Follow recipes on how much doughs should rise before going in the oven.

Too much sugar was added.

Excess sugar makes the dough look more fluid, but in fact it actually draws up water, robbing the yeast of the amount needed for vigorous growth. Use only the amount of sugar called for in the recipe.

Dough was left too long during an extended rise in the refrigerator.

Depending on the recipe, loaves should be held in the refrigerator for a maximum of 24 to 48 hours; longer storage reduces yeast potency.

Dough Overflows the Pan During Second Rise or Baking

Dough rose too long or in an overly warm room, causing over-fermentation

If the room is overly warm, always compensate by cutting back on the rising time.

Too much yeast was added by mistake.

The amount of yeast specified in recipes is calculated to produce the right amount of fermentation and rising. Measure carefully when adding yeast.

The pan used was too small.

When dough is put in a pan, at least ¾ inch should remain at the top to accommodate rising. If the dough nearly fills the pan before any rising, the remaining space is insufficient to handle the normal volume increase and the excess dough may hang over the sides. Switch to a bigger pan.

Dough was too moist and soft.

Doughs with too much liquid or insufficient flour to stiffen them can run over the rim as they rise. Be sure to stiffen doughs with more flour before the second rise if this is specified in the directions.

Loaf Sinks in the Center or Completely Collapses

Dough was over-raised before being put in the oven.

Loaves inadvertently allowed to rise too high may not support themselves. If possible, stir down over-risen dough and let it rise the proper amount before baking.

Dough was too wet, which "diluted" the gluten and weighed down the loaf.

Be sure to add in enough flour before the second rise, as directed in the recipe.

Loaf was removed from the oven before interior was baked through.

Carefully check for doneness with a skewer inserted in the thickest part, or, better yet, with an instant-read thermometer as directed in the recipe.

Bread Gummy, Doughy, or Wet-Looking in the Middle or on the Bottom

Loaf was under-baked.

Due to the relative moistness of Kneadlessly Simple loaves, they need to be more thoroughly baked than conventional recipes. Check for doneness with a skewer or, if possible, an instant-read thermometer. When the interior seems done, always bake for an extra 5 to 10 minutes to be sure. (If the top is already very brown, cover it with foil first.) An instant-read thermometer is the best insurance against under-baking.

Ingredient proportions were off due to inaccurate measuring.

Adding too much water or fat and too little flour can throw the chemistry out of balance; measure carefully. If you bake often, consider investing in kitchen scales to ensure accurate measuring.

Oven thermostat was off.

Many home ovens run too hot or too cold. If baking times are routinely long and loaves don't brown well or bake thoroughly, check temperatures with an oven thermometer.

Loaf was cut while still hot.

The pressure from the cutting can squash and compact a loaf before it has time to set up and become firm. It's hard to wait, but try to!

Loaf Crust Burns or Browns Excessively Before the Inside Is Done

Loaf was baked on the wrong oven rack.

Most loaves bake best in the lower third of the oven; in most ovens, this means the rack placement slot just below the middle one. When recipes call for baking on the lowest rack, choose the rack slot closest to the oven floor.

Oven thermostat was out of whack or temperature was set too high.

Breads containing a lot of dairy products, chocolate, or sweeteners tend to over-brown in a hot (over 375°F) oven. Be sure the thermostat is operating correctly.

A very dark metal pan was used.

Dark pans absorb heat so efficiently that they sometimes over-brown baked goods, especially when loaves contain eggs, fat, sugar, and other enrichments. Switch to a lighter-colored pan.

Loaf was not covered with foil as directed in the recipe.

Enriched doughs naturally brown rapidly and many need to be covered part of the way through baking to prevent over-browning It's a good idea to occasionally check browning progress during baking, as not all ovens brown at the same rate.

Crust Looks Pale or Under-Browned

Oven thermostat was off, temperature was set too low, or preheating time was too short.

Lean doughs (those lacking fat, sugar, milk, and eggs) need a high temperature (over 375°F) for good browning, especially during the first 15 minutes of baking.

Required wash, glaze, or spritz of water was omitted.

Some lean doughs call for an egg wash, glaze, or spritz of water to encourage crust browning. If it is omitted, they will look pale.

A very light metal baking pan was used.

Very shiny, light-colored pans are often too reflective and divert heat away from the loaf. Switch to a different pan.

Bread Lacks Flavor

Salt was omitted or too small an amount was added.

Kneadlessly Simple breads normally have plenty of flavor due to the use of a long first rise, but if salt is omitted, they can taste flat.

Loaf Tastes too Sour or Yeasty, or Has Off Flavors

Too much yeast was added.

Excessive amounts of yeast can cause over-fermentation, producing excess acid and alcohol that give breads strong aromas and flavors.

Stale ingredients were used.

Old flour, fat, nuts, or seeds, etc., will not be improved or masked by baking; start with fresh, good-quality ingredients.

Dough over-rose.

This can occur if the dough rising period is much longer than recommended; or the rising takes place in an overly warm room; or the dough is held longer than recommended in the refrigerator. All of these can lead to over-fermentation and an off taste.

Bread Is Dry and Crumbly

Overly dry additions such as stale, hard dried fruit, or dried-out cornmeal, oats, or seeds were added.

These can draw too much moisture from the dough, so always use fresh products.

Instructions to rehydrate certain ingredients were skipped.

Heed the directions to pre-soak dried fruits, seeds, etc., as they will otherwise hydrate using moisture in the dough.

Wrong flour was used.

When bread flour is called for, it is needed to provide proper structure and in some cases to prevent a crumbly texture.

Measurements were off, proportion of white wheat flour or bread flour was too low.

Wheat flours develop the gluten that keeps breads from being crumbly, so don't arbitrarily substitute other kinds of flour.

Loaf Is Misshapen

Loaf was not slashed as directed.

Not all breads require slashing, but for some it's very important: This step encourages the loaf to expand fully and the crust to split attractively, rather than in an unpredictable "blow-out" fashion.

Wrong size pan was used.

A too-small pan can cause the loaf to hang over the sides or look lopsided. A too-large pan can yield a flat or skimpy- looking loaf.