1. (London and Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate, 1863), p. 105.

2. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, “Raising Darwin’s Consciousness: Females and Evolutionary Theory,” in Robert Bellig and George Stevens, editors, Nobel Conference XXIII: The Evolution of Sex (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988), p. 161.

3. John Paul Scott, “Agonistic Behavior of Primates: A Comparative Perspective,” in Ralph L. Holloway, editor, Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: A Comparative Perspective (New York: Academic Press, 1974), especially p. 427; Shirley C. Strum, Almost Human: A Journey into the World of Baboons (New York-Random House, 1987).

4. Dorothy L. Cheney, “Interactions and Relationships Between Groups,” Chapter 22 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors, Primate Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 281.

5. Solly Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1932), pp. 49, 50.

6. Solly Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 39.

7. Ibid., p. 12.

8. F. W. Fitzsimons, The Natural History of South Africa, Volume 1, Mammals (London: Longmans, Green, 1919), quoted in Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes, p. 293.

9. Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, pp. 220, 219, and footnote, p. 220.

10. Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes, pp. 228, 229.

11. Ibid., p. 237.

12. Scott, op. cit.; H. Kummer, Social Origin of Hamadryas Baboons (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).

13. Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, p. 41.

14. Ibid., p. 42.

15. Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes, p. 148.

16. Hrdy, op. cit. (ref. 2), p. 163.

17. Donna Robbins Leighton, “Gibbons: Territoriality and Monogamy,” Chapter 12 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit., pp. 135–145.

18. Randall Susman, editor, The Pygmy Chimpanzee: Evolutionary Biology and Behavior (New York: Plenum, 1984).

19. Frans de Waal, Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 181.

20. Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Smuts et al., op. cit., p. 167.

21. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (New York: The Modern Library, n.d.) (originally published in 1871) pp. 396, 397. Both Pliny and Aelian wrote about wine-imbibing apes who could be captured when drunk.

22. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975), p. 538.

23. Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, The Biology of Peace and War. Men, Animals, and Aggression, translated by Eric Mosbacher (New York: The Viking Press, 1979) (originally published in 1975 as Krieg und Frieden by R. Piper, München), p. 108.

24. Paul D. MacLean, “Special Award Lecture: New Findings on Brain Function and Sociosexual Behavior,” Chapter 4 in Joseph Zubin and John Money, editors, Contemporary Sexual Behavior. Critical Issues in the 1970s (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p. 65.

25. Barbara B. Smuts, “Sexual Competition and Mate Choice,” Chapter 31 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors, Primate Societies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 392.

26. Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, “The Primate Origins of Human Sexuality,” in Robert Bellig and George Stevens, editors, Nobel Conference XXIII: The Evolution of Sex (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988).

27. Alison F. Richard, “Malagasy Prosimians: Female Dominance,” Chapter 3 in Smuts et al, eds., op. cit., p. 32. Reference for quotation within passage: A. Jolly, “The Puzzle of Female Feeding Priority,” in M. Small, ed., Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1984), p. 198.

28. Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit., p. 174.

29. Mireille Bertrand, Bibliotheca Primatologica, Number 11, The Behavioral Repertoire of the Stumptail Macaque: A Descriptive and Comparative Study (Basel: S. Karger, 1969), p. 191.

30. Frans de Waal, Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), pp. 153, 154.

31. Frank E. Poirier, “Colobine Aggression: A Review,” in Ralph L. Holloway, editor, Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: A Comparative Perspective (New York and London: Academic Press, 1974), pp. 146–147, 130–131, 140–141.

32. Sherwood L. Washburn, “The Evolution of Human Behavior,” in John D. Roslansky, editor, The Uniqueness of Man (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1969), p. 170.

33. Robert M. Seyfarth, “Vocal Communication and Its Relation to Language,” Chapter 36 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit., pp. 444, 450, 445.

34. P. D. MacClean, “New Findings on Brain Function and Sociosexual Behavior,” in Contemporary Sexual Behavior, Zubin and Money, eds., op. cit.

35. Solly Zuckerman, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1932), p. 259.

36. Darwin, op. cit., p. 449.

37. Zuckerman, op. cit., p. 474.

38. Patricia L. Whitten, “Infants and Adult Males,” Chapter 28 in Smuts et al., eds., op. cit., pp. 343, 344.