Using Russian : A Guide to Contemporary Usage Derek Offord

**Using Russian** is a **guide** to **Russian usage** for those who have already acquired the basics of the language and wish to extend their.

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Using Russian

Using Russian is a guide to Russian usage for those who have already acquired the basics of the language and wish to extend their

knowledge. Unlike conventional grammars, it gives special attention to those areas of vocabulary and grammar which cause most difficulty to English speakers, and focuses on questions of style and register which are all too often ignored. Clear, readable and easy to consult, it will prove invaluable to students seeking to improve their fluency and

confidence in Russian.

This second edition has been substantially revised and expanded to

incorporate fresh material and up-to-date information. Many of the

original sections have been rewritten, the passages illustrating register are all fresh and one brand new chapter has been added, providing a

clear picture of Russian usage in the twenty-first century.

derek offord is Professor of Russian Intellectual History at the

University of Bristol, where he has served as Chairman of the School of Modern Languages and Head of Department. His previous

publications include Portraits of Early Russian Liberals (1985), The Russian Revolutionary Movement in the 1880s (1986) and Modern Russian: An Advanced Grammar Course (1993), as well as numerous articles and chapters on classical Russian literature and thought.

natalia gogolitsyna is Language Assistant at the University of

Bristol. She has taught Russian as a second language at St Petersburg Pedagogical University, and has been a visiting academic at the

University of Essex. Her previous publications include Problems of Translation: Russian Words and Concepts with No Exact Equivalents in English (1995) and various articles on culture-specific words and concepts.

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Using Russian

A guide to

contemporary usage

Second edition, revised and augmented

DEREK OFFORD

University of Bristol

NATALIA GOGOLITSYNA

University of Bristol

  

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridg e.org /9780521547611

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2005

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Contents

Preface to the first edition

xiii

Preface to the second edition

Acknowledgements

xviii

Sources

xix

Note on transcription, stress marks and transliteration

xxii

Glossary of linguistic terms

xxiii

List of abbreviations

xxxiii

Varieties of language and register

1.1

The Russian language and its distribution

1.2

Varieties of language

1.3

Registers

1.3.1 The colloquial register (R1)

1.3.2 Demotic speech (D)

1.3.3 The neutral register (R2)

1.3.4 The higher register (R3)

1.3.5 Styles of belles-lettres (сти´ли худо´жeствeнной

литeрaту´ры)

1.3.6 Language of the internet (язы´к интeрнe´тa)

1.4

Illustration of register in vocabulary

1.5

Regional variation in Russian

1.5.1 Standard pronunciation

1.5.2 Classification of Russian dialects

1.5.3 Regional features

1.6

Current debate about standard Russian

Passages illustrating register

2.1

R1: from a TV show

2.2

R1: based on a conversation in a Russian internet chatroom

2.3

R2: magazine interview with a popular actor

2.4

R2: question-and-answer session with President Putin

2.5

R3a: academic style (modern historiography)

2.6

R3a: academic style (scientific writing)

2.7

R3b: official/business style (legal)

2.8

R3b: official/business style (commercial)

2.9

R3c: political journalism (reporting)

2.10

R3c: political journalism (comment)

2.11

Classical poetry

2.12

Literary prose

2.13

Language of the internet

Contents

Problems of meaning: Russian words

3.1

Homonyms

3.1.1 Examples of homonyms

3.1.2 Homonyms with different plural forms

3.2

Homophones and homoforms

3.3

Homographs

3.4

Paronyms

3.5

Faux amis (ложныe друзья´)

3.6

Problems of number

3.6.1 Nouns with plural form only

3.6.2 Nouns with singular form only

3.7

Russian words difficult to render in English

Problems of translation from English into Russian

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

4.2

Translation of the verb to be

150

4.3

Translation of English modal auxiliary verbs

154

4.4

Transitive and intransitive verbs

159

4.5

Translation of English forms ending in -ing

160

4.6

Translation of too, also, as well

162

Vocabulary and idiom

163

5.1

Neologisms

163

5.1.1 Western loanwords in Russian

163

5.1.2 Recent loanwords from English

165

5.1.3 Neologisms derived from existing Russian words

166

5.1.4 Slang

169

5.1.5 Computing terminology

171

5.2

Transition words

176

5.3

Fillers

177

5.4

Modal particles

179

5.5

Interjections

188

5.6

Vulgar language

190

5.7

Idioms

193

5.8

Proverbs and sayings (посло´вицы и погово´рки)

199

5.9

Similes

202

Language and everyday life

203

6.1

Measurement

203

6.1.1 Length, distance, height

203

6.1.2 Area

204

6.1.3 Weight

204

6.1.4 Volume

205

6.1.5 Russian pre-revolutionary units of measure

205

6.1.6 Speed

206

6.1.7 Temperature

206

6.2

Currency

207

Contents

6.3

Fractions and presentation of numerals

207

6.4

Time

207

6.5

Telephone numbers

208

6.6

Postal addresses

208

6.7

Family relationships

209

6.8

Public notices

209

6.9

Abbreviations of titles, weights, measures and

common expressions

211

6.10

Acronyms and alphabetisms

213

6.11

Names of countries and nationalities

216

6.11.1 Russia and the other states of the former

Soviet Union

216

6.11.2 Other regions and national minorities of Russia and the

former Soviet Union

217

6.11.3 Europe (Eвро´пa)

218

6.11.4 Africa ( Áфрикa)

220

6.11.5 America (Aмe´рикa)

221

6.11.6 Asia ( Áзия)

221

6.11.7 The Middle East (Бли´жний Bосто´к)

222

6.11.8 Australia and New Zealand

223

6.12

Words denoting inhabitants of Russian and former

Soviet cities

223

6.13

Jokes (aнeкдо´ты) and puns (кaлaмбу´ры)

225

Verbal etiquette

228

7.1

Introductory remarks

228

7.2

Use of ты and вы

229

7.3

Personal names

230

7.3.1 First names (имeнa´)

230

7.3.2 Patronymics (о´тчeствa)

233

7.4

Attracting attention (привлeчe´ниe внимa´ния)

235

7.5

Introductions (знaко´мство)

237

7.6

Greetings (привe´тствиe)

239

7.7

Farewells (прощa´ниe)

241

7.8

Congratulation (поздрaвлe´ниe)

242

7.9

Wishing (пожeлa´ниe)

242

7.10

Gratitude (блaгодa´рностъ)

244

7.11

Apologising (извинe´ниe)

244

7.12

Request (про´сьбa)

245

7.13

Invitation (приглaшe´ниe)

247

7.14

Reassurance and condolence (утeшe´ниe, соболe´зновaниe)

247

7.15

Compliments (комплимe´нты)

248

7.16

Telephone conversations (тeлeфо´нный рaзгово´р)

248

7.17

Letter writing (пeрeпи´скa)

250

Word-formation

252

8.1

Principles of word-formation

252

vii

Contents

8.2

Types of consonant, spelling rules and consonant changes

253

8.2.1 Hard and soft consonants

253

8.2.2 Use of the hard sign

253

8.2.3 Devoicing of consonants

254

8.2.4 Spelling rules

254

8.2.5 Consonant changes

255

8.2.6 Epenthetic л

255

8.3

Verbal prefixes

255

8.4

Noun prefixes

263

8.5

Adjectival prefixes

264

8.6

The verbal infixes -ывa-/-ивa-

265

8.7

Noun suffixes

266

8.7.1 The principal noun suffixes

266

8.7.2 Noun suffixes denoting females

274

8.7.3 Miscellaneous noun suffixes

276

8.8

Diminutive, augmentative and expressive suffixes

277

8.8.1 Diminutive and hypocoristic suffixes

277

8.8.2 Double diminutive suffixes

279

8.8.3 The augmentative suffix -ищe/-ищa

279

8.8.4 Pejorative suffixes

279

8.9

The principal adjectival suffixes

280

8.10

Suffixes of participial origin

284

8.11

The verbal suffixes -ничaть and -aну´ть

285

8.12

Composition

286

8.12.1 Compound nouns

286

8.12.2 Compound adjectives

287

Inflection

288

9.1

Declension of the noun

288

9.1.1 Gender

288

9.1.2 Basic declensional patterns of the noun

289

9.1.3 Mobile vowels

291

9.1.4 Genitive singular forms in -у/-ю

291

9.1.5 Locative singular forms in -´y/-ю´

292

9.1.6 Masculine nouns with nominative plural in -á/-я´

294

9.1.7 Irregularities in the genitive plural of nouns

296

9.1.8 Irregularities in dative/instrumental/prepositional

plural forms

299

9.1.9 Nouns which are irregular throughout the plural

299

9.1.10 Nouns with irregular declension throughout

301

9.1.11 Declension of surnames

303

9.1.12 Indeclinable nouns

304

9.2

Declension of pronouns

305

9.3

Adjectival forms

307

9.3.1 Declension of adjectives

307

9.3.2 Formation of short adjectives

309

9.3.3 Formation of short comparatives

310

viii

Contents

9.4

Formation of adverbs

312

9.5

Declension of numerals

313

9.6

Verb forms

315

9.6.1 The system of conjugation

315

9.6.2 1A verbs

316

9.6.3 1B verbs with vowel stems and unstressed endings

316

9.6.4 1B verbs with stems in л and p and unstressed endings

316

9.6.5 1B verbs with vowel stems and stressed endings

317

9.6.6 1B verbs with consonant stems and unstressed endings

317

9.6.7 1B verbs with consonant stems and stressed endings

319

9.6.8 Second-conjugation verbs

322

9.6.9 Irregular verbs

324

9.6.10 Formation of the past tense

325

9.6.11 Formation of the imperative

326

9.7

Formation of gerunds and participles

328

9.7.1 Formation of imperfective gerunds

328

9.7.2 Formation of perfective gerunds

328

9.7.3 Formation of present active participles

329

9.7.4 Formation of past active participles

329

9.7.5 Formation of present passive participles

330

9.7.6 Formation of past passive participles

330

Prepositions

333

10.1

Valency of prepositions

333

10.1.1 Prepositions followed by apparent nominative forms

333

10.1.2 Prepositions governing the accusative

334

10.1.3 Prepositions governing the genitive

337

10.1.4 Prepositions governing the dative

343

10.1.5 Prepositions governing the instrumental

345

10.1.6 Prepositions governing the prepositional or locative

346

10.2

Prepositional phrases based on nouns

350

10.3

Verbs followed by prepositions

350

10.3.1 Verbs followed by prepositions governing

the accusative

350

10.3.2 Verbs followed by prepositions governing the genitive

351

10.3.3 Verbs followed by prepositions governing the dative

352

10.3.4 Verbs followed by prepositions governing

the instrumental

352

10.3.5 Verbs followed by prepositions governing

the prepositional

353

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

354

Syntax

377

11.1

Use of the cases

377

11.1.1 Use of the nominative

377

11.1.2 Use of the accusative

377

11.1.3 Use of case to denote animate direct object

378

Contents

11.1.4 Basic uses of the genitive

380

11.1.5 Verbs governing the genitive

381

11.1.6 Case of direct object after a negated verb

382

11.1.7 Basic uses of the dative

384

11.1.8 Verbs governing the dative

386

11.1.9 Basic uses of the instrumental

388

11.1.10 Verbs governing the instrumental

388

11.1.11 Use of the prepositional

391

11.2

Use of pronouns

391

11.2.1 Use of кото´рый as a relative pronoun

391

11.2.2 Use of кaко´й and кото´рый as interrogative pronouns

392

11.2.3 Use of negative pronouns (никто´, etc.)

392

11.2.4 Use of нe´кого, etc.

393

11.2.5 Use of the particles -то, -нибу´дь, -ли´бо

393

11.2.6 Use of свой

394

11.3

Use of short adjectives

395

11.4

Use of numerals

398

11.4.1 Use of оди´н

398

11.4.2 Use of numerals higher than one in nominative/

accusative 398

11.4.3 Use of numerals in oblique cases

399

11.4.4 Use of numerals with animate direct object

399

11.4.5 Use of collective numerals

400

11.4.6 Approximation

401

11.4.7 Agreement of predicate with a subject containing a

cardinal numeral

401

11.4.8 Translation of years and people after numerals

402

11.4.9 Distributive expressions

402

11.4.10 Time

403

11.4.11 Dates

404

11.4.12 Distance

404

11.4.13 Nouns expressing number

405

11.5

Use of aspects

405

11.5.1 Basic distinction between the aspects

405

11.5.2 Effect of adverbial modifiers

406

11.5.3 Use of aspect in the indicative

406

11.5.4 Use of aspect in the infinitive

408

11.5.5 Use of aspect in negative constructions

409

11.5.6 Use of aspect in the imperative

410

11.6

Problems in choice of tense

411

11.7

Use of verbs of motion

412

11.8

Use of reflexive verbs

413

11.9

The conditional mood

415

11.10

The subjunctive mood

416

11.11

Use of gerunds and participles

418

11.11.1 Use of gerunds

418

11.11.2 Use of active participles

419

11.11.3 Use of present passive participles

419

Contents

11.11.4 Use of past passive participles

419

11.12

Conjunctions

420

11.12.1 Coordinating conjunctions

420

11.12.2 Subordinating conjunctions

422

11.12.3 Subordinating conjunctions used in R1 or R3

423

11.13

Syntactic features of colloquial speech

424

11.14

Word order

425

11.15

Punctuation

428

11.16

Use of capital letters

432

Stress

433

12.1

Introductory remarks

433

12.2

Stress in nouns

433

12.2.1 Masculine nouns

434

12.2.2 Feminine nouns

438

12.2.3 Neuter nouns

440

12.2.4 Irregular stress in certain prepositional singular forms

442

12.2.5 Prepositions that attract stress in certain phrases

443

12.3

Stress in adjectives

443

12.4

Stress in verbs

444

12.4.1 Stress in first-conjugation verbs

444

12.4.2 Stress in second-conjugation verbs

445

12.4.3 Stress in past-tense forms

447

12.4.4 Stress in gerunds and participles

449

12.4.5 Miscellaneous points

452

12.5

Variation in stress

452

Index of Russian words, phrases and affixes

455

General index

487

Preface to the first edition

This book, like the volumes already published in the series on

contemporary usage in French, German and Spanish, is aimed at the

advanced learner who has studied the basic grammar of the language

and is now striving for a more comprehensive and sophisticated

knowledge. To this end the book includes much material on register,

vocabulary, verbal etiquette and word-formation, as well as material on the subjects of morphology, prepositions and syntax with which the

post-A-level student should already have some familiarity. The book is not conceived as a comprehensive grammar, although the main

grammatical topics that trouble the English-speaking student are quite fully covered in the later chapters. The approach adopted is not

prescriptive. That is to say an attempt is made to show the range of linguistic phenomena that might be encountered in modern Russian

and to define the limits within which they are used rather than to lay down rules for usage.

While offering, it is hoped, a multi-faceted view of the modern

language, two purposes are kept in mind throughout the book.

Firstly, it is intended to demonstrate that Russian, like any other

modern language with which the student may be familiar, is not a

stable, uniform abstraction that is applied inflexibly in all situations. As a living language spoken by millions of individuals of different ages from different backgrounds and in different situations, Russian exists in many varieties. Words, forms and constructions which are appropriate in one context may be quite out of place in another. Even apparently hard-and-fast grammatical rules may be relaxed, to the frustration of the foreign student who has laboriously mastered them. Chapter 1

therefore aims to make the student aware of the existence of variety in the Russian language, and this variety is borne in mind and examples of it indicated in all the chapters that follow.

Secondly, the book attempts to address problems that the

English-speaking student of Russian may find especially taxing.

Russian operates, of course, according to quite different grammatical principles from those to which the English-speaker is accustomed.

(One thinks in particular of its system of declension of nouns,

pronouns, adjectives, numerals and participles and of the aspectual

distinction that runs through the Russian verbal system.) Moreover, in the field of vocabulary correspondences between Russian and English

words are often limited or inexact and similarities can be misleading.

Again, in certain situations Russians simply do not express themselves in the same way as English-speakers in a similar situation, or at least a direct translation of what an English-speaker would say in that situation would seem to a Russian to some degree unnatural. Much attention is

xiii

Preface to the first edition

therefore devoted in this book to problems of non-equivalence in the two languages in vocabulary, phraseology and verbal etiquette as well as grammar.

Beyond these purposes it is also hoped that the book, through its

broad approach, will increase the student’s general awareness of the structure and resources of the Russian language, and that his or her understanding and appreciation of the immense vitality and depth of

experience of the Russian people may thus in some small way be

enhanced.

xiv

Preface to the second edition

This new edition of Using Russian: a Guide to Contemporary Usage represents an extensively revised and augmented version of the first edition, which was published in 1996. Whereas the first edition

consisted of ten chapters the current edition has twelve and is some ninety pages longer than the first. Our thanks are due to Cambridge

University Press for allowing this enlargement.

Some material in the first edition that is now out-of-date or that is for some other reason of less interest than it was in 1996 (for example, neologisms associated with the period of glásnost and perestróika) has been excised or reduced. On the other hand, much fresh material has

been incorporated, especially in the first five chapters and the last chapter. The main changes that have been made are as follows.

Chapter 1 is based on sections 1–5 inclusive of the first chapter of the first edition but the material has been substantially rewritten and considerably expanded. Section 1.1, on the distribution of the Russian language, has been revised in the light of information in the most

recent Russian census (2002). Section 1.2, on varieties of language, has been slightly expanded to include material on the distinction drawn, for example by David Crystal, between written and spoken language.

Section 1.3, on registers in contemporary Russian, contains some fresh examples of usage and a new section (1.3.6) on the language of the internet (a subject to which this new edition as a whole pays much

attention). Section 1.4, which is also new, briefly illustrates differences in register as reflected in vocabulary by taking about two dozen

common words and identifying some of their equivalents in low and

high registers. A further new section (1.6), on current debate about standard Russian, deals with concerns about the lowering of the

standard that have arisen as a result of the perceived linguistic

permissiveness that has accompanied the political, economic and social transformation of Russia over the last ten years.

The seven passages that were used to illustrate register in the first edition (located at 1.6 in that edition) have all been excised as now somewhat stale and have been replaced by thirteen fresh passages.

Colloquial speech, the neutral register, the scientific/academic style, the official/business style, the style of journalism and political debate, and the language of imaginative literature are all illustrated in the new edition by two passages each. There is also a passage that illustrates and explicitly discusses the style of email. This latter passage, taken together with one of the passages exemplifying colloquial language on the basis of conversation in an internet chatroom, gives insight into the new

register of Netspeak. The thirteen passages illustrating register, and the translations of and commentaries on them, now take up the whole of

Preface to the second edition

Chapter 2, from which it is hoped a broad view of the range of register available in contemporary Russian will emerge.

Additions have also been made to the two chapters (Chapters 3

and 4 of the new edition) that deal with problems of meaning and translation (one on Russian words and one on English words). In

Chapter 3, for example, a few new entries have been inserted in each of the sections on homonyms (3.1), paronyms (3.4) and faux amis (3.5)

and a new section (3.7) has been included on Russian words that are difficult to render in English because of their cultural specificity. In 4.1

some new entries have been added and some further possible

translations have been provided in entries that were already included in this section in the first edition.

In the chapter on vocabulary and idiom (now Chapter 5) the first section, on neologisms, has been rewritten in order to take account of the recent expansion of Russian lexis by means of the adoption of

loanwords, the extension of the use of colloquial words and the

elevation of demotic words to the level of everyday colloquial speech.

This section now includes sub-sections on slang (5.1.4) and on the new vocabulary associated with computing (5.1.5). The last three sections of Chapter 5 (5.7–5.9) have also been slightly expanded and contain more extensive literal translation of, and fuller comment on, the idioms, proverbs and similes that they present than the equivalent sections in the first edition.

In what is now Chapter 6, section 6.8, on the language of public notices, and section 6.10, on acronyms and alphabetisms, have been slightly expanded to reflect contemporary practice. We have also

appended a short section on the popular Russian conversational genre of the joke, or ‘anecdote’, to the end of this chapter (6.13).

The last four chapters of the first edition (Chapters 8–11 inclusive in this second edition) have required much less substantial revision than the earlier chapters, because they concern morphology and syntax,

which have been relatively little affected by innovation over the eight years that have elapsed since the publication of the first edition. No significant cuts have been made to these chapters, because we feel that it remains useful for advanced learners to have at hand a fairly

exhaustive compendium of information on grammar alongside the

material on those aspects of language (register and vocabulary) that are subject to greater and more rapid change.

Finally, a new chapter has been included on stress (Chapter 12), on the grounds that it is important for the advanced learner to master

Russian stress patterns, which are complex, and that study of them has been relatively neglected in English-language books on Russian. In

keeping with the spirit of the series this new chapter devotes some

attention to variation in usage.

All the material from the first edition which remains substantially

unchanged in this second edition has been reviewed. Mistakes and

flaws identified in the first edition have been corrected and further xvi

Preface to the second edition

minor alterations have been made with respect to both content and

presentation.

Our revision of the first edition has been informed by recent

literature on debate about the standard in English and on the impact of the internet on the English language as well as by new work on the

Russian language. We have also been able to make use of online

resources on the Russian language that were not available when the

first edition was being prepared. The new sources that we have

consulted are included in the revised list of sources that appears on pp. xix–xxi.

Cross-referencing and the two indexes (a list of the Russian words

and affixes to which the book refers and an index of topics covered) have of course been revised to take account of all the changes made.

DO, NG

Bristol, July 2004

xvii

Acknowledgements

Every effort has been made to secure necessary permissions to

reproduce copyright material in this work, though in some cases it has proved impossible to trace or contact copyright holders. If any

omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to include

appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting, and in any subsequent

edition .

We thank Penguin Books for permission to reproduce the English

translation of an extract from Pushkin’s poem that is given in

section 2.11.

We also warmly thank the following: Tatiana Dimoglo, for material

on neologisms and orthography and for general linguistic advice; Elena Gogolitsyna, for material and advice on contemporary slang and

computing terminology; Yurii Gogolitsyn for his invaluable technical assistance; John Steeds, FRS, for his help with translation of the

passage on physics reproduced at 2.5; Helen Barton of Cambridge

University Press for her guidance and for her prompt and patient

responses to all our queries; Kay McKechnie for her careful reading of the typescript and the many improvements that she introduced at the

copy-editing stage; and Alison Powell of Cambridge University Press

for overseeing production of the book. For any mistakes,

misapprehensions and imperfections of presentation that might remain in spite of the best efforts of all who have helped us in various ways we ourselves accept sole responsibility.

DO, NG,

Bristol, August 2004

xviii

Sources

Reference works

Avanesov, R. I., ed., Oрфоэпuчeскuй словaрь русского языкa, Pусский

язык, Moscow, 1985

Borras, F. M., and R. F. Christian, Russian Syntax, 2nd edn, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1979

Chernyshev, V. I., et al., eds., Cловaрь соврeмeнного русского

лuтeрaтурного языкa, Aкaдeмия нaук CCCP, 17 vols., Moscow,

1950–65

Comrie, Bernard, Gerald Stone and Maria Polinsky, The Russian Language in the Twentieth Century, 2nd edn, revised and expanded, of The Russian Language since the Revolution, by Bernard Comrie and Gerald Stone, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996

Evgeneva, A. P., Cловaрь сuнонuмов русского языкa, Haукa, 2 vols., Leningrad, 1970–1

Forbes’ Russian Grammar, 3rd edn, revised and enlarged by J. C. Dumbreck, Oxford University Press, 1964

Galperin, I. R., ed., New English– Russian Dictionary, 2 vols., Soviet Encyclopaedia Publishing House, Moscow, 1972

The Oxford Russian Dictionary (Russian–English, English–Russian), revised and updated by Colin Howlett, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New

York, 1993

Ozhegov, S. I., Cловaрь русского языкa, 20th edn, Pусский язык, Moscow, 1988

Pulkina, I. M., A Short Russian Reference Grammar, translated from the Russian by V. Korotky, 7th edn, Pусский язык, Moscow, 1984

Ryazanova-Clarke, Larissa, and Terence Wade, The Russian Language Today, Routledge, London and New York, 1999

Unbegaun, B. O., Russian Grammar, Oxford University Press, 1957

Vinogradov, V. V., et al., Грaммaтuкa русского языкa, Aкaдeмия нaук

CCCP, 2 vols. in 3 books, Moscow, 1960

Vlasto, A. P., A Linguistic History of Russia to the End of the Eighteenth Century, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1988

Wade, Terence, A Comprehensive Russian Grammar, 2nd edn, revised and expanded, ed. Michael J. de Holman, Blackwell, Oxford, and Malden,

Mass., 2000

Wade, Terence, and Nijole White, Using Russian Synonyms, Cambridge University Press, 2003

Ward, Dennis, The Russian Language Today: System and Anomaly, Hutchinson University Library, London, 1965

Wheeler, Marcus, The Oxford Russian– English Dictionary, 2nd edn, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1990

We have also made use, especially in Chapters 9–11, of material from Derek Offord, Modern Russian: an Advanced Grammar Course, Bristol Classical Press and Duckworth, London, 1993.

xix

Sources

Specific references

Many sections in this book (indicated by the references in brackets after the titles below) draw on the works on particular areas of vocabulary or grammar in the following list or relate to areas more fully dealt with in those works.

Akulenko, V. V., ed., Aнгло-русскuй u русско-aнглuйскuй словaрь ‘ложных

друзeй пeрeводчuкa’, Cовeтскaя энциклопeдия, Moscow, 1969 (3.5)

Avanesov, R. I., and V. G. Orlova, eds., Pусскaя дuaлeктологuя, 2nd edn, Haукa, Moscow, 1965 (1.5)

Bex, Tony, and Richard J. Watts, Standard English: the Widening Debate, Routledge, London and New York, 1999 (1.6)

Bivon, R., Element Order, Cambridge University Press, 1971 (11.14)

Bratus, B. V., The Formation and Expressive Use of Diminutives, Cambridge University Press, 1969 (8.8)

Cooper, Brian, ‘Problems with the in-laws: the terminology of Russian family relationships’, Journal of Russian Studies, no. 52 (1987), pp. 37–45 (6.7)

Crystal, David, Language and the Internet, Cambridge University Press, 2001

(1.3.6)

Davison, R. M., The Use of the Genitive in Negative Constructions, Cambridge University Press, 1967 (11.1.6)

Flegon, A., зa nрeдeлaмu русскuх словaрeй, Flegon Press, London, 1973

(5.6)

Fomina, M. I., Cоврeмeнный русскuй язык: лeксuкологuя, 3rd edn, Bысшaя школa, Moscow, 1990 (3.1.1–3.4)

Foote, I. M., Verbs of Motion, Cambridge University Press, 1967 (11.7)

Formanovskaia, N. I., У nотрeблeнue русского рeчeвого этuкeтa, Pусский

язык, Moscow, 1982 (7.1–7.2, 7.4–7.16)

Forsyth, James, A Grammar of Aspect: Usage and Meaning in the Russian Verb, Cambridge University Press, 1970 (11.5)

Gogolitsyna, N., ‘BYT: a Russian word study’, Rusistika, no. 17 (March 1998), pp. 3–6 (3.7)

Gogolitsyna, N., ‘New developments in Russian vocabulary’, Rusistika, no. 12

(December 1995), pp. 32–3 (5.1)

Gogolitsyna, N., ‘The Russian Intelligentsia’, Rusistika, no. 25 (spring 2002), pp. 14–22 (3.7)

Gogolitsyna, N., ‘Svoboda and Volya: Russian words and concepts’, Rusistika, no. 19 (March 1999), pp. 22–5 (3.7)

Harrison, W., The Expression of the Passive Voice, Cambridge University Press, 1967 (11.8, 11.11.4)

Ivanova, Tatiana, ‘“лингвоэкология” или ильич кaк брeнд’,

литeрaтурнaя гaзeтa, no. 16 (April 2003) (1.6)

Khlebtsova, Olga, ‘Кaк бы русский язык’, литeрaтурнaя гaзeтa, no. 11

(March 2003) (1.6)

Klimenko, A., Эффeктивный сaмоучитeль рaботы нa ПК . Oсновной

курс, Diasoft, Moscow, St Petersburg and Kiev, 2003 (5.1.5)

Kuzmin, S. S., and N. L. Shchadrin, Pусско–aнглuйский словaрь пословuц

u nоговорок, Pусский язык, Moscow, 1989 (5.7–5.8)

Maksimov, V. I., et al., Cловaрь neрeстройкu, злaтоуст, St Petersburg, 1992 (5.1)

Mustajoki, Arto, Пaдeж доnолнeнuя в русскuх отрuцaтeльных

прeдложeниях, Slavica Helsingiensa, 2, Helsinki, 1985 (11.1.6)

Sources

Norbury, J. K. W., Word Formation in the Noun and Adjective, Cambridge University Press, 1967 (Chapter 8)

Palazhchenko, P., Mой нeсистeмaтичeский словaрь. Pусско-aнглийский.

Aнгло-русский. ( Из зaписной книжки пeрeводчикa), 3rd edn, P. Baлeнт, Moscow, 2003 (Chapters 3–5)

Pereiaslov, Nikolai, ‘литeрaтурa и клaвиaтурa’, литeрaтурнaя гaзeтa, no. 21 (May–June 2003) (1.3.6)

Rassudova, O. P., У nотрeблeнue вuдов глaголa, Moscow University Press, 1971 (11.5)

Room, Adrian, ‘Russian personal names since the Revolution’, Journal of Russian Studies, nos. 45 (1983), pp. 19–24 and 46 (1983), pp. 13–18 (7.3)

Rozental, D. E., Прaктuчeскaя стuлuстuкa русского языкa, 4th edn, Bысшaя школa, Moscow, 1977 (esp 1.3)

Rozental, D. E., and M. A. Telenkova, Cловaрь-сnрaвочнuк

лuнгвuстuчeскuх тeрмuнов, 3rd edn, Просвeщeниe, Moscow, 1985

(Glossary)

Shanskii, N. M., and E. A. Bystrova, 700 фрaзeологuчeскuх оборотов

русского языкa, Pусский язык, Moscow, 1975 (5.7)

Suslova, A. P., and A. V. Superanskaia, O русскuх uмeнaх, 3rd revised edn, лeниздaт, Leningrad, 1991 (7.3)

Valgina, N. S., Cuнтaксuс соврeмeнного русского языкa, 3rd edn, Bысшaя школa, Moscow, 1991 (esp 11.14–11.15)

Vasileva, A. N., Particles in Colloquial Russian, translated by V. Korotky and K. Villiers, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1972 (5.4)

Vsevolodova, M. V., ‘Употрeблeниe крaтких и полных

прилaгaтeльных’, Pусскuй язык зa рубeжом, 1971, no. 3, рр. 65–8

and 1972, no. 1, рр. 59–64 (11.3)

Wade, Terence, Prepositions in Modern Russian, University of Durham, 1983

(Chapter 10)

Zemskaia, E. A., and D. N. Shmelev, eds., Городскоe nросторeчue: Проблeмы изучeния, Haукa, Moscow, 1984 (1.3.2)

In addition we have made use of some of the many online resources to which students of the Russian language may now turn, e.g. <www.gazeta.ru>,

<www.smi.ru>, <www.nns.ru>, <www.gramma.ru> and various sites that have been set up under the auspices of the Government of the Russian Federation’s Council for the Russian Language (Cовeт по русскому языку

при Прaвитeльствe Pоссийской eдeрaции), e.g.

<www.slovari.gramota.ru>, <www.spravka.gramota.ru>,

<www.learning-russian.gramota.ru>, <www.navigator.gramota.ru>.

xxi

Note on transcription, stress marks

and transliteration

Where it has been necessary to indicate precisely how a Russian word is pronounced (e.g. in the sections on regional variation in 1.5)

a standard system of phonetic transcription has been used, according to which the Cyrillic consonants have the following values:

б в г д ж з й к л м н п р с т ф х ц ч ш щ

b v g d

ž z

j k l m n p r

s t

f x c č š

šš

The symbol placed after a letter indicates that the preceding

consonant is soft, e.g. l es (лeс). Since most consonants, when they precede the vowels represented by the Russian letters e, ё, и, ю and я, are soft, these letters will in effect be transcribed, within this phonetic system, as e, o, i, u, a respectively, e.g. i ul a (ию´ля). The symbol may also indicate the presence of a soft sign in the Russian word, e.g.

noč (ночь).

Stress is indicated in this book by the use of an acute accent over the stressed vowel, e.g. хлe´бa. In words which may be stressed in different places by different speakers an acute accent is placed over both the vowels that may bear the stress, e.g. ко´мпa´с. The secondary stress (see Glossary) that may occur in some words, especially compound nouns

or adjectives, is marked by a grave accent.

The system of transliteration used to render Russian names (e.g.

Petia, i.e. Пe´тя), place names and other Russian words in Roman script is that used in The Slavonic and East European Review. In this book stress has been marked in these transliterated forms (e.g. Púshkin, perestróika), as well as in Cyrillic forms (Пу´шкин, пeрeстро´йкa) unless the Cyrillic form, with stress indicated, is adjacent to the transliterated form.

xxii

Glossary of linguistic terms

Besides providing explanation of terms used in this book, the

following glossary should aid understanding of the linguistic concepts required for advanced study of Russian. It will in any case be found that many educated Russians have a high degree of awareness of the

grammar of their language and that in talking about it they will use some of the terms defined here. Numbers in brackets refer to the

section(s) in this book that deal(s) with the phenomenon in question.

accusative case (вини´тeльный пaдe´ж): the case in which the direct object of a transitive verb is expressed, e.g. Óльгa читaéт кни´гу, Ol ga is reading a book (9.1.2, 10.1.2, 10.3.1, 11.1.2).

acronym (звуковa´я aббрeвиaту´рa): word made up of the initial letters of other words, e.g. laser (light amplification by the stimulated

emission of radiation) (6.10).

active voice (дeйстви´тeльный зaло´г): construction in which the subject of the verb itself performs the action, e.g. The boy stroked the cat; cf. passive voice.

adjective (и´мя прилaгa´тeльноe): word that qualifies a noun, e.g. a red

pen.

adverb (нaрe´чиe): word modifying the meaning of a verb, adjective or adverb, e.g. Peter walks slowly, quite big, very quickly (9.4, 11.14(c)).

adversative conjunction (противи´тeльный сою´з): conjunction

expressing contrast, e.g. but.

affix (a´ффикс): an element added to a root or stem to modify its meaning or use, e.g. unwilling, wonderful. Prefixes, infixes and suffixes (q.v.) are all types of affix.

affricate (aффрикa´тa): consonant sound beginning as a plosive (q.v.) and passing into the corresponding fricative (q.v.), e.g. the initial and final sounds in church, i.e. t + š. Standard Russian has two affricates, c (ц) and č (ч).

akan e (a´кaньe): loss of distinction between the phonemes a and o in the pretonic syllable of a word (i.e. the syllable preceding the stress), e.g. Maskvá (Mосквa´; see 1.5.1). Áкaньe is a feature of pronunciation of Muscovite Russian, other C dialects and the S

regional dialect.

alphabetism (бу´квeннaя aббрeвиaту´рa): word consisting of initial capital letters of other words, e.g. O ´

OH (Oргaнизa´ция

Oбъeдинённых Ha´ций, United Nations Organisation) (6.10).

animacy (одушeвлённость): grammatical category embracing nouns that denote living things; in Russian, inflection of the accusative

singular of most masculine nouns and of the accusative plural of

xxiii

Glossary of linguistic terms

nouns of all genders is determined by whether they are classified as animate or inanimate (see 11.1.3).

attributive adjective (aтрибути´вноe прилaгa´тeльноe): a descriptive adjective which qualifies a noun or noun-equivalent directly, e.g. the

new car (9.3.1); cf. predicative adjective.

biaspectual verb (двувидово´й глaго´л): verb in which one form may function as either imperfective or perfective, e.g. вeлe´ть, рa´нить.

buffer vowel (бe´глоe о): vowel added for the sake of euphony in certain situations to some Russian prepositions and prefixes which

end in a consonant, e.g. во внимa´ниe, пeрeдо мно´й, сожгу´.

calque (кa´лькa): a loan translation, i.e. a compound word or phrase that is a literal translation of a foreign expression, e.g. Eng motorway

from Ger Autobahn; влия´ниe, influence.

cardinal numeral (коли´чeствeнноe числи´тeльноe): numeral

expressing how many, e.g. five (9.5, 11.4); cf. ordinal numeral.

case (пaдe´ж): morphological variant of a noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral or participle which expresses the relation of that word to

other words in the clause.

clause (прeдложe´ниe): word group containing a subject and predicate, e.g. I shall do it [main/principal clause] as soon as I can [subordinate clause]. (An overt subject, however, is not always present, e.g. in the imperative Do it! ) See also main clause, subordinate clause.

cognates (однокорeнныé/однокорнeвыé словa´): words that are

etymologically related or derived from the same root, e.g. Eng

mother, Fr mère, Ger Mutter, Russ мaть, Sp madre; or, within Russian, стaри´к, стa´рость, стaру´хa, стa´рый, устaрe´лый, etc.

colloquial (рaзгово´рный): informal or familiar style, expression or form widely used in everyday speech (1.3.1).

complement (дополнe´ниe): word or group of words that completes the meaning of an utterance, esp a noun or noun phrase that directly defines the subject, e.g. She is a teacher (11.1.10); see also object.

conditional mood (усло´вноe нaклонe´ниe): verbal form expressing condition or hypothesis, e.g. if it rains; if it were to rain (11.9).

conjugation (спряжe´ниe): system of verb inflections expressing tense, mood, voice, person and number.

conjunction (сою´з): word used to connect words, groups of words or sentences, indicating the relationship of the connected elements,

e.g. dogs and cats (coordinating conjunction); I had supper after they had gone (subordinating temporal conjunction); I like curry although

it’s hot (subordinating concessive conjunction); She drank some water

because she was thirsty (subordinating causal conjunction)

(11.12.1–11.12.3).

consonant (соглa´сный): any speech sound other than a vowel, i.e.

sound produced by some obstruction of the airstream (see also

affricate, fricative, plosive); also any letter representing such a sound.

coordinating conjunction (сочини´тeльный сою´з): a conjunction connecting two words, groups of words or sentences and indicating

xxiv

Glossary of linguistic terms

that both are independent and have the same function and

importance, e.g. and (11.12.1).

dative case (дa´тeльный пaдe´ж): the case used to denote the indirect object of a verb, e.g. I gave it to my father; Oнa´ послa´лa мнe письмо´, She sent the letter to me (see 9.1.2, 9.1.8, 10.1.4, 10.3.3,

11.1.7–11.1.8).

declension (склонe´ниe): system of inflections of noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral or participle expressing gender, case and number.

defective verb (нeдостa´точный глaго´л): verb which for some reason lacks some personal form or forms, e.g. побeди´ть which has no first-person-singular form.

denominal preposition (отымённый прeдло´г): preposition derived from a noun, e.g. по отношe´нию к, with regard to (10.2).

devoicing (дeвокaлизa´ция, оглушe´ниe): transformation of a voiced consonant into a voiceless consonant (q.v.), e.g. pronunciation of final b of рaб as p.

dialect (диaлe´кт): a variety of language distinguished from others by features of its sound system, vocabulary, morphology and syntax.

Dialects may be geographic (i.e. spoken by people of the same

territory) or social (i.e. spoken by people of the same class, social or occupational group). In Russian the term нaрe´чиe designates a regional dialect spoken over a very wide area, whilst the term го´вор

designates a local dialect confined to a much smaller area (1.5).

direct object (прямоé дополнe´ниe): the thing on which the action denoted by a transitive verb is directed, e.g. I broke a window; She bought a newspaper (11.1.2–11.1.3, 11.1.6).

disjunctive conjunction (рaздeли´тeльный сою´з): conjunction

which unites clauses or sentences but separates meanings, e.g. or.

dual number (дво´йствeнноe число´): a grammatical form indicating duality; the form is obsolete in Russian but remnants of it survive, e.g. in plurals such as глaзa´ and у´ши and in the use of genitive singular forms of nouns after the numerals 2, 3 and 4.

ellipsis (э´ллипсис): omission of a word or words whose meaning will be understood by the listener or reader, e.g. after all [that has been

said]; Bы мeня´ [спрa´шивaeтe]? [ Are] you [ asking] me? (11.13).

ending (окончa´ниe): in Russian, inflectional suffix added to a word to indicate its case, number, tense, mood, etc. in a particular

context.

faux ami (ло´жный друг): a word in a foreign language that does not mean what a foreigner, on the basis of her or his own language,

might expect it to mean, e.g. Russian трaнсля´ция does not mean translation (3.5).

fricative (фрикaти´вный): consonant sound produced by the breath being forced through a narrow opening, e.g. Eng f, v, s, z and th in both that and think.

genitive case (роди´тeльный пaдe´ж): the case expressing possession, e.g. кни´гa брa´тa, (my) brother’s book (9.1.2, 9.1.4, 9.1.7, 10.1.3,

10.3.2, 11.1.4–11.1.6).

xxv

Glossary of linguistic terms

gerund (дeeпричa´стиe): in Russian, verb form invariable in gender, case and number which may be derived from verbs of either aspect

and which defines the relationship in time of one action to another

action denoted by the main verb of the sentence, e.g. Oнa´ гуля´лa,

нaпeвa´я мeло´дию, She strolled, humming a tune (imperfective gerund denoting simultaneous action); Провe´рив рaбо´ту, он

зaкры´л тeтрa´дь, Having checked his work, he closed the exercise-book (perfective gerund denoting prior action) (9.7.1–9.7.2, 11.11.1).

government (упрaвлe´ниe): way in which a word controls the form of another word, e.g. the verb горди´ться governs an object in the

instrumental case; the preposition о´коло governs a noun or

noun-equivalent in the genitive case.

grammar (грaммa´тикa): rules of morphology and syntax of a

language.

hard sign (твёрдый знaк): the letter ъ, as in e.g. рaзъe´хaться, the function of which is explained at 8.2.2.

homoform (омофо´рмa): a word identical with another word only when it is in one of the several morphological forms that it may

adopt, e.g. лeчу´ (3.2).

homograph (омо´грaф): a word written in the same way as another word but pronounced in a different way and having different

meaning, e.g. потом, i.e. по´том and пото´м (3.3).

homonym (омо´ним): a word having the same sound as another word and written in the same way, but having a different meaning and

possibly a different origin, e.g. bank (side of river and financial institution) (3.1.1–3.1.2).

homophone (омофо´н): a word which sounds the same as another

word but is written differently, e.g. bare/bear, right/write (3.2).

iakan e (я´кaньe): pronunciation of e as a after a soft consonant in the pretonic syllable. In strong (си´льноe) я´кaньe, pretonic a replaces e irrespective of the quality of the vowel in the stressed syllable, e.g.

naslá (нeслa´), s alóm (сeло´м), n asú (нeсу´), t ap eŕ (тeпe´рь). In moderate (умe´рeнноe) я´кaньe, pretonic a replaces e only before hard consonants, e.g. n aslá (нeслa´), s alóm (сeло´м), n asú (нeсу´), but t epeŕ (тeпe´рь) where p is soft.

idiom (идио´мa): expression peculiar to a language, group of words with a single meaning which cannot readily be derived from the

meanings of the individual component words, e.g. Eng to spill the

beans, Russ Bи´лaми нa/по водe´ пи´сaно, It’s still up in the air (5.7).

ikan e (и´кaньe): pronunciation of the vowels e and a in the pretonic syllable after a soft consonant as i, e.g. d it e´j (дeтe´й), n islá (нeслa´), t ip eŕ (тeпe´рь), vz ilá (взялa´), r idу´ (ряды´), t inú (тяну´).

imperative mood (повeли´тeльноe нaклонe´ниe): verbal mood

expressing command, invitation, suggestion, entreaty, request, etc., e.g. come in, sit down (6.8, 9.6.11, 11.5.6).

imperfective aspect (нeсовeршe´нный вид): describes an action without reference to its extent and thus presents it as incomplete,

xxvi

Glossary of linguistic terms

e.g. Oнa´ пe´лa, She was singing/used to sing (11.5); cf. perfective aspect.

indicative mood (изъяви´тeльноe нaклонe´ниe): mood which affirms or denies that the action or state denoted by the verb in question is an actual fact, e.g. I read, she went, they were sitting, the sun was not

shining.

indirect object (ко´свeнноe дополнe´ниe): a noun, pronoun or phrase denoting an object indirectly affected by an action, e.g. He gave the book [direct object] to his sister [indirect object]. See also dative case.

indirect speech (also called reported speech; ко´свeннaя рeчь): discourse in which the substance of sb’s words or thoughts is related without being quoted verbatim, e.g. He told me that he would do it, She said she was twenty (11.6).

infinitive (инфинити´в): verb form expressing the idea of an

action without reference to person or number, e.g. to speak, говори´ть.

infix (и´нфикс): element inserted in the middle of a word to modify its meaning or use, e.g. зaпи´сывaть (8.6); English, unlike Russian, has no infixes.

inflection (also flexion; окончa´ниe): the grammatical ending that expresses relations of case, tense, number, gender, etc. in nouns,

pronouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs and participles, e.g. брa´тa, сeбe´, но´вого, трёх, читa´ю, сидя´щaя.

instrumental case (твори´тeльный пaдe´ж): the case denoting the agent by which or the instrument with which sth is done, e.g.

подпи´сaнный им догово´р, the treaty signed by him, писa´ть

кaрaндaшо´м, to write with a pencil (9.1.2, 9.1.8, 10.1.5, 10.3.4,

11.1.9–11.1.10).

interjection (мeждомe´тиe): an exclamatory word, invariable in form, which is thrown into an utterance to express emotion, e.g. oh!, ox!

(5.5).

intransitive verb (нeпeрeхо´дный глaго´л): a verb that does not require a direct object, e.g. The sun rises, A crowd gathered (4.4, 11.8).

isogloss (изогло´ссa): a line separating one region from another which differs from it in a feature of dialect. The isogloss may indicate e.g.

the limits of distribution of a certain word or the boundary beyond

which one phenomenon (e.g. о´кaньe) is replaced by another

(a´кaньe).

lexical (лeкси´чeский): relating to vocabulary (as opposed to grammar).

locative case (мe´стный пaдe´ж): the case which indicates location of an object; used after the prepositions в and нa (9.1.2, 9.1.5, 10.1.6,

10.3.5, 11.1.11); see also prepositional case.

long form (of adjective; по´лнaя фо´рмa): full form that must be used when a Russian adjective is attributive, e.g. ру´сский, но´вaя, бe´лоe, си´льныe, etc. (9.3.1); cf. short form, which may be used when the adjective is predicative.

xxvii

Glossary of linguistic terms

main clause (глa´вноe прeдложe´ниe): a clause which can stand independently, e.g. I went home [main clause] after I had spoken to you [subordinate clause, q.v.].

mobile vowel (бe´глый глa´сный): one of the vowels o, ё or e when (a) they precede the final consonant of a masculine noun in its

nominative singular form but disappear once an inflection is added,

e.g. у´гол (углa´, etc.; see 9.1.3), or (b) are inserted in certain types of feminine or neuter noun which in the genitive plural have a zero

ending (q.v.), e.g. доскa´ (досо´к), полотe´нцe (полотe´нeц; see

9.1.7).

modal particle (модa´льнaя чaсти´цa): a short indeclinable word which emphasises, intensifies or in some other way expresses the

speaker’s emotion or attitude, e.g. вeдь, жe (5.4).

modal verb (модa´льный глaго´л): verb (e.g. Eng can, could, may; Russ мочь) expressing possibility, permissibility, obligation, etc., and followed by another verb which it modifies (4.3).

monosyllable (односло´жноe сло´во): word comprising one syllable, e.g. cat, word.

mood (нaклонe´ниe): form of the verb that indicates how the speaker views an action or state, i.e. whether it is seen as matter-of-fact, desirable, contingent on sth else, etc. See also conditional, imperative, indicative, subjunctive.

morphology (морфоло´гия): study of the forms of words.

Inflectional morphology (see inflection) relates to the declension of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals and participles

and conjugation of verbs (see Chapter 9). Lexical (q.v.) morphology relates to word-formation (q.v.; see Chapter 8).

neologism (нeологи´зм): a new word or phrase (e.g. грaнт, тeнeви´к), or the use of an old word in a new sense (e.g. боeви´к) (5.1).

nominative case (имeни´тeльный пaдe´ж): the case in which the subject is expressed, e.g. ´

Oльгa читaéт кни´гу, Olga is reading a book

(9.1.2, 10.1.1, 11.1.1).

number (число´): the grammatical property of a word which indicates whether it is singular, dual (q.v.) or plural. The difference between car/cars, mouse/mice, I am/we are is in each instance a difference of number.

numeral (числи´тeльноe): a word denoting number, e.g. two, five; see also cardinal numeral and ordinal numeral.

object (дополнe´ниe): see direct object and indirect object.

oblique case (ко´свeнный пaдe´ж): any case other than the nominative (and in other Slavonic languages, vocative), i.e. in Russian

accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental, prepositional. In this book the term is used to embrace the last four of these cases, but not

generally the accusative.

okan e (о´кaньe): the phoneme o preserves its value in the pretonic syllable, e.g. sová (совa´); cf. akan e above. In full (по´лноe) о´кaньe o retains its value even in the syllable before the pretonic syllable, e.g.

molodój (молодо´й). In incomplete (нeпо´лноe) о´кaньe, o in the xxviii

Glossary of linguistic terms

syllable preceding the pretonic syllable is reduced to ə, e.g. mə lokó (молоко´) (1.5).

Old Church Slavonic (цeрк òвнослaвя´нский язы´к): the South Slav language that was used by the early Slav missionaries, in the ninth

and tenth centuries, for the transmission of Christian teaching to

other Slav peoples; the basis of the language used in Russia for

liturgical purposes and most literary forms before westernisation in the eighteenth century.

ordinal numeral (поря´дковоe числи´тeльноe): numeral indicating place in order or sequence, e.g. second, fifth.

orthography (орфогрa´фия): correct or accepted use of the written characters of a language.

paradigm (пaрaди´гмa): table setting out the system of inflection of a word.

paronym (пaро´ним): a word which may be confused with another to which it is close in sound, written form and possibly meaning, and

which may be of similar origin, e.g. principal/principle. In this book the term is used in a broad sense to include all easily confused words, even those of quite different origin, e.g. брe´мя, врe´мя (3.4).

participle (причa´стиe): a verb form that combines both the qualities of a verb (e.g. transitiveness or intransitiveness, active or passive meaning, tense and aspect, but not person) and the qualities of a

noun (e.g. gender, case and number). Russian has present and past

active participles and present and past passive participles

(9.7.3–9.7.6, 11.11.2–11.11.4).

passive voice (стрaдa´тeльный зaло´г): the form of a verb which indicates that the subject suffered the action, i.e. was not itself the agent, e.g. I was hit by a stone, They were taught French by their mother.

perfective aspect (совeршe´нный вид): describes an action restricted in its extent and thus presents it as complete; perfectives relate to the beginning of an action (e.g. зaзвeнe´ть, to start to ring), the limited duration of an action (e.g. посидe´ть, to sit for a while), or the completion of an action (e.g. вы´пить, to drink up) (11.5); cf.

imperfective aspect.

periphrasis (пeрифрa´зa): complicated, round-about expression, use of more words than is strictly speaking necessary, e.g. in this day and

age.

person (лицо´): form of the verb which represents: (a) the

person/persons or thing/things speaking (i.e. 1st pers, e.g. I/we read); (b) the person/persons or thing/things spoken to (i.e. 2nd pers, e.g. you read ); or (c) the person/persons or thing/things spoken about (i.e. 3rd pers, e.g. he/she reads, they read).

phrase (фрa´зa): group of words lacking a finite verb but felt to express a single idea or to constitute a discrete element in a sentence.

plosive (взрывно´й): consonant sound produced by momentary

stoppage of the air passage at some point, e.g. Russ b and p (labial plosives), d and t (dental plosives), g and k (velar plosives); also sometimes called an ‘occlusive’(смы´чный) or a ‘stop’.

xxix

Glossary of linguistic terms

predicate (скaзуéмоe): word or group of words which says sth about the subject, e.g. I am studying languages; Cats catch mice. A verb is generally the chief part of the predicate.

predicative adjective (прeдикaти´вноe прилaгa´тeльноe): adjective that forms part of the predicate, i.e. which is separated from the

noun it qualifies by some part of the verb to be or, in Russian, by part of the verb to be that is understood, e.g. The book was

interesting, Кни´гa былa´ интeрe´снa.

prefix (пристa´вкa): element added to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning, e.g. predetermine, приходи´ть (8.3–8.5).

preposition (прeдло´г): word that defines the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word, e.g. The book is on the table; I went

across the road; A plane flew over the houses (Chapter 10).

prepositional case (прeдло´жный пaдe´ж): case used after certain prepositions when they have certain meanings (9.1.2, 9.1.5, 9.1.8,

10.1.6, 10.3.5, 11.1.11); see also locative case.

present perfect continuous: the tense which in English indicates that an action begun in the past is still continuing, e.g. I have been

living here for three years. In Russian this tense must be rendered by an imperfective verb in the present tense (11.6).

pretonic syllable (прeдудa´рный слог): the syllable before the stress, e.g. Mосквa´.

pronoun (мeстоимe´ниe): word used instead of a noun, e.g. he, she

(9.2, 11.2).

prosthetic (also prothetic; протeти´чeский): sound inserted at the beginning of a word for ease of pronunciation, e.g. the sound n in нa нeго´ (9.2).

proverb (посло´вицa): short familiar sentence expressing a

supposed truth or moral lesson, e.g. Every cloud has a silver lining

(5.8).

register (стиль): a variety of language determined by such factors as medium, subject-matter, purpose and situation (1.2–1.4, 1.6).

relative pronoun (относи´тeльноe мeстоимe´ниe): a word which

introduces a subordinate clause describing a preceding noun or

pronoun (the antecedent), e.g. Eng who, which, Russ кото´рый, e.g.

The man who sells newspapers; The table which I bought yesterday

(11.2.1).

reported speech: see indirect speech.

root (ко´рeнь): the base of a word which bears its fundamental meaning, e.g. стол in сто´лик, столо´вaя, нaсто´льный, etc.

secondary stress (второстeпe´нноe удaрe´ниe): in long words,

especially compound words, a syllable other than the main stressed

syllable which may also need to be pronounced with additional

force. Secondary stress is marked in this book by a grave accent, e.g.

цeрко`внослaвя´нский.

semantic (сeмaнти´чeский): relating to meaning.

sentence (прeдложe´ниe): minimum complete utterance, e.g. I told

him; Come back!

xxx

Glossary of linguistic terms

short form (of adjective; крa´ткaя фо´рмa): the truncated masculine, feminine, neuter and plural forms, e.g. нов, новa´, но´во, но´вы, which in modern Russian are indeclinable and which may only be

used predicatively (9.3.2, 11.3); see also predicative adjective.

simile (срaвнe´ниe): rhetorical likening of a thing to sth else, e.g. drunk

as a lord, like a bolt from the blue (5.9).

Slavonicism (слaвяни´зм): a form of Old Church Slavonic (q.v.) origin. Many Slavonicisms exist in Russian alongside East Slav

forms. They are characterised by (a) certain phonetic features,

notably (with the Slavonicism first in each pair): прaх/по´рох, млa´дший/молодо´й, срeдa´/сeрeди´нa, рaстe´ниe/рост, лaдья´/ло´дкa, грaждaни´н/горожa´нин, ночь/всe´нощнaя, eди´ный/оди´н, юро´дивый/уро´д); (b) certain prefixes, e.g. избрa´ть (cf. вы´брaть), низвeргa´ть, чрeзмe´рный (cf. чe´рeз), прeдви´дeть (cf. пe´рeд), прeступлe´ниe (cf. пeрeступa´ть); (с) certain suffixes, e.g. пe´рвeнeц, сочу´вствиe, жизнь, моли´твa, святы´ня, творe´ниe, горя´щий (cf.

горя´чий), богaтe´йший, широчa´йший. Slavonicisms tend to have a more bookish flavour than related Russian forms of East Slav origin

and tend to occur in more elevated varieties of language.

soft sign (мя´гкий знaк): the letter ь, the function of which is to indicate that the preceding consonant is soft. The soft sign is

normally transliterated by the symbol or by an apostrophe.

stress (удaрe´ниe): in all Russian words of more than one syllable, as in such English words, one syllable is pronounced with more force

than the other(s). This stress is marked in this book, as in most

textbooks, by an acute accent, but it is not normally indicated in

Russian publications. Russian stress patterns (Chapter 12) are numerous and complex.

stump-compound (aббрeвиaту´рa): word compounded of segments

of other words, e.g. тeрa´кт (тeррористи´чeский aкт, terrorist act).

subject (подлeжa´щee): the agent performing the action expressed by the verb in an active sentence, or the person on whom or the thing

on which the action of a passive sentence is performed, e.g. The

priest delivered a sermon; We saw the queen; The man was struck by lightning.

subjunctive mood (сослaгa´тeльноe нaклонe´ниe): the verbal mood which indicates that the action or state denoted by the verb in

question is regarded as hypothetical or subject to another action or state, e.g. I wish he were right; I demand that it be done (11.10).

subordinate clause (придa´точноe прeдложe´ниe): clause which

cannot function as a sentence in its own right but is dependent on

another clause which can, e.g. I think [main clause] that she is nice

[subordinate clause]; I like the house [main clause] which you have

bought [subordinate clause]; I went to bed [main clause] because it

was late [subordinate clause].

subordinating conjunction (подчини´тeльный сою´з): conjunction introducing a subordinate clause, e.g. although, after, because

(11.12.2–11.12.3).

xxxi

Glossary of linguistic terms

substantivised adjective (субстaнтиви´ровaнноe прилaгa´тeльноe): word which has adjectival form but is used as a noun, e.g.

моро´жeноe, ice-cream; столо´вaя, dining-room.

suffix (су´ффикс): element added to the end of a root or stem to modify its use or meaning, e.g. writer, happiness (8.7–8.11).

syntax (си´нтaксис): grammatical structure in a sentence, or study of that structure.

tense (врe´мя): verbal form indicating whether the action or state denoted by the verb is viewed as past, present or future.

transitive verb (пeрeхо´дный глaго´л): verb that requires a direct object, e.g. I bought a car (4.4, 11.8).

tsokan e (цо´кaньe): loss of distinction between the affricates (q.v.) c and č . In hard (твёрдоe) цо´кaньe the standard soft hushing affricate č is replaced by a hard hissing affricate c, e.g. cúdo (чу´до). In soft (мя´гкоe) цо´кaньe č is replaced by a soft hissing c , e.g. c údo.

velar (зaднeнёбный): consonant sound produced by raising the back of the top of the tongue against the soft palate (нёбо); in Russian

the sounds g, k, x.

vocative case (звa´тeльный пaдe´ж): case used in direct personal address; now defunct in Russian, except in relics such as Бо´жe and го´споди and in certain colloquial forms in the spoken language (see

7.3.1). (The vocative survives in other Slavonic languages, e.g.

Czech, Polish, Serbo-Croat.)

voiced consonant (зво´нкий соглa´сный): consonant produced with the vocal cords vibrating, e.g. Russian b, v, g, d, ž, z; see also voiceless consonant.

voiceless consonant (глухо´й соглa´сный): consonant produced

without vibration of the vocal cords, e.g. Russian p, f, k, t, š, s, x,

c, č , šš .

vowel (глa´сный): sound produced by passage of air through mouth without obstruction of the airstream, e.g. a, e, i, o, u.

word-formation (словообрaзовa´ниe): formation of new words by combining roots and affixes or by other means; also the study of the structure of words and the laws of their formation in a language

(Chapter 8).

zero ending (нулeвоé окончa´ниe): ending of a Russian noun in an oblique case in which no inflection is present e.g. солдa´т, soldier (which is genitive plural as well as nominative singular); жён (gen pl; nom sg жeнa´, wife); мeст (gen pl; nom sg мe´сто, place).

xxxii

List of abbreviations

acc

accusative

math

mathematical

act

active

med

medical

adj

adjective

mil

military

adv

adverb

mus

musical

agric

agricultural

North

biol

biological

neuter

Central

North-East

col

column

nom

nominative

collect

collective

non-refl

non-reflexive

conj

conjunction

North-West

demotic

obs

obsolete

dat

dative

OCS

Old Church

Slavonic

dimin

diminutive

offic

official

East

part

participle

econ

economic

pass

passive

Eng

English

pej

pejorative

esp

especially

pers

person

feminine

perfective

fig

figurative

phil

philosophical

fin

financial

plural

French

poet

poetic

fut

future

pol

political

gen

genitive

prep

prepositional

geog

geographical

pres

present

geol

geological

Ger

German

refl

reflexive

gram

grammatical

rhet

rhetorical

imp

imperative

Russ

Russian

impers

impersonal

somebody

impf

imperfective

South-East

incl

including

singular

indecl

indeclinable

Spanish

infin

infinitive

sth

something

instr

instrumental

subst

substantivised

iron

ironical

South-West

lit

literally

tech

technical

loc

locative

theat

theatrical

masculine

vulg

vulgar

The Russian particle -нибу´дь is frequently abbreviated to -н.

xxxiii

1 Varieties of language and register

1.1

The Russian language and its distribution

The Russian language belongs to the East Slav group of languages,

itself part of the Slavonic branch of the Indo-European family. The

relationship of Russian to the other modern European languages is

illustrated by Figure 1 (which includes only languages still used by substantial numbers of speakers).

It is difficult to give accurate up-to-date figures for the number of people for whom Russian is their native or first language, or at least their first language for some purpose or purposes (e.g. professional or social). This difficulty arises for several reasons. Firstly, we are dealing with several different categories of user, including the following: ethnic Russians who are citizens of the Russian Federation; ethnic Russians who are citizens of other former republics of the Soviet Union;

members of other ethnic groups who are citizens of the Russian

Federation; and members of other ethnic groups who are citizens of

other former republics of the Soviet Union but who continue to use

Russian at work or at home, perhaps because their community or

family is mainly Russian-speaking. It is not always easy to define

whether Russian is the first or second language of at least the latter two groups. Secondly, there has been much migration between the regions

and states of the former Soviet Union since the collapse of the Union in 1991, with the result that numbers and proportions of ethnic

Russians or other speakers of Russian in each former republic may

have changed significantly over the last thirteen years. Thirdly,

considerable numbers of both ethnic Russians and members of

non-Russian ethnic groups who grew up in Russia or the Soviet

Union using Russian as their first language have in the same period

emigrated from the Russian Federation to countries outside the

former Soviet Union. The number of Jews in the Russian Federation,

for example, fell from roughly 540,000 in 1989 to 230,000 in 2002 and the number of Russian Germans has declined over the same period

from 840,000 to 600,000. It is difficult to determine how many

émigrés continue to use Russian as their first language, or for how

long they do so, after their emigration.

The most easily quantifiable group of Russian-speakers, of course, is the citizenry of the Russian Federation, of which Russian is the official language. According to the census of the Russian Federation carried

out in 2002, the population of the Federation was a little over 145

million, 1 of whom some 116 million (i.e. almost 80 per cent) describe themselves as ethnically Russian.

Varieties of language and register

Greek

Albanian

Armenian

Russian

Belarusian

(i.e. Belorussian,

White Russian)

Ukrainian

East Slavonic

Other

Slavonic

Serbo-Croat

Slovene

Bulgarian

Macedonian

South Slavonic

Latvian

Lithuanian

Czech

Slovak

Polish

West Slavonic

Baltic

Irish

Welsh

Breton

Celtic

French

Spanish

Portuguese

Italian

Romanian

Romance

languages

Danish

Swedish

Norwegian

Icelandic

North Germanic

opean

Germanic

Indo-Eur

The

English

German

Dutch

Flemish

West Germanic

Fig.

1.1

The Russian language and its distribution

Among the remaining 20 per cent, or approximately 29 million, of

the population of the Russian Federation (many of whom will also

consider Russian their first language) 160 nationalities were

represented, according to the 2002 census. The largest of these

non-Russian groups, in descending order, were Tatars (of whom there

were over five million), Ukrainians (almost three million, although

their number in the Russian Federation has been decreasing), Bashkirs and Chuvashes (over a million each), and Chechens and Armenians

(also over a million each, and their numbers in the Russian Federation have been increasing). Figure 2 shows the composition of the population of the Russian Federation by ethnic group, as revealed by the 2002 census.

Of the non-Russian citizens of the Federation the Ukrainians and

Belorussians (whose numbers in the Russian Federation have also been decreasing) are ethnically close to the Russians. Their languages (i.e.

Ukrainian and Belorussian respectively) are closely related to Russian, which Ukrainians and Belorussians are likely also to speak with native or near-native facility. However, many of the non-Russian citizens of the Russian Federation (e.g. Estonians, Kazakhs, Latvians) belong to quite different ethnic groups from the Russians, including

non-European groups. They may therefore speak a language that is

only distantly related to Russian (e.g. Latvian, which is also

Indo-European) or that belongs to a different linguistic group (e.g.

Estonian, which is a Finno-Ugric language, or Kazakh, which is a

Turkic language). 2 These non-Russian citizens of the Federation have varying degrees of command of Russian. A substantial number of them

consider Russian their first language.

It needs to be borne in mind, incidentally, that different Russian

terms are used to denote the different types of ‘Russian’ who have

been identified in the preceding paragraphs. The substantivised

adjective ру´сский (f ру´сскaя) denotes a person who is ethnically

Russian. Used as an adjective, this word also denotes the Russian

language (ру´сский язы´к). The noun россия´нин (f россия´нкa), on the other hand, conveys the broader concept of a person who is a citizen of the Russian Federation but who is not necessarily ethnically

Russian. The adjective росси´йский has a correspondingly broader

sense than the adjective ру´сский, as, for example, in the name of the country itself (Pосси´йскaя eдeрa´ция), which denotes a political rather than an ethnic, linguistic or cultural entity.

The numbers of ethnic Russian and non-Russian speakers of

Russian outside the Russian Federation are more difficult to quantify.

Some idea of their number can be gauged from the fact that at the

time of the 1989 census (the last census carried out in the Soviet era) there were 25 million ethnic Russians living in other republics of the Soviet Union (see 6.11.1 for a list of these republics), the majority of them in Ukraine. Moreover, since Russian was used as a second

language throughout the non-Russian areas of the Union, whose total

Varieties of language and register

census

2002

the

ding

accor,

roupg

ethnicyb

ederationF

Russian

the

opulationP

Fig.

1.1

The Russian language and its distribution

population in 1989 was 287 million, one may assume that the language was used as a first or second language by at least a further 50 million Soviet citizens. However, the status of the Russian language is now

diminishing in the former Soviet republics in proportion as the

languages of the ethnic groups that are dominant in the new states (e.g.

Kazakhs in Kazakhstan) are promoted, particularly within the

educational system. Admittedly Russian remains a lingua franca for

commercial and diplomatic transactions in the former Soviet republics, especially among the older generation of speakers who were educated

in Soviet times, when Russian was the dominant language throughout

the Union. On the other hand, the rise of English as the language of global communication, and therefore the first foreign language to be taught in schools, may further weaken the status of Russian outside the Russian Federation. One may predict that in twenty or thirty years

Russian will be less widely spoken in the former Soviet republics than it is today, especially in those countries with a relatively small residual ethnic Russian population (e.g. Lithuania). It is also possible that many people who do speak Russian in those countries will use it less than they do today and that they will have a poorer command of it than

non-Russians who speak Russian there now.

Russian is of course also spoken, with varying degrees of fluency,

accuracy and proximity to the Russian now spoken in Russia itself, by many émigrés or their descendants in countries outside the former

Soviet Union. Russians, or members of other ethnic groups who were

formerly Soviet citizens, have left the Soviet Union – or not returned to it – at four main periods in the last ninety years or so: in the years immediately or soon after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917; after the Second World War (1939–45), following their displacement; in the

Brézhnev period (especially in the 1970s, after the granting of

permission to Jews to leave the country); and from the mid-1980s,

following the further relaxation of emigration controls. The principal destinations of these emigrants, at one time or another, have been

France, Germany, Britain, the US and Israel. Many members of the

Russian diaspora are permanently settled abroad but some – mainly

more recent émigrés – are only temporarily resident outside Russia,

perhaps because they are working or studying abroad.

Russian is also spoken by millions of people as a foreign language,

especially people from Africa, Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe who received all or most of their higher education in the Soviet

Union. Moreover, Russian has been widely taught outside Russia

since the Second World War, particularly when the Soviet Union was

at its most powerful from the 1960s to the1980s. Organisations such as the International Association of Teachers of the Russian Language and Literature (Meждунaро´днaя aссоциa´ция прeподaвa´тeлeй ру´сского

языкaór MAПPЯ

´ л) were set up in the Soviet period to support such

activity. However, the number of foreigners learning Russian

(estimated at some 20 million in 1979) has diminished in the

Varieties of language and register

post-Soviet period, following the demise of Russian hegemony in the

Eastern bloc countries (East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia,

Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria) and the weakening of Russian

influence in various states in other parts of the world (e.g. Cuba,

Angola, Ethiopia, North Yemen and Vietnam).

It should be added, finally, that Russian is one of the official and working languages of the United Nations and UNESCO.

Although Russian is thus widely distributed, and although it is also the language in which one of the world’s great bodies of imaginative literature has been created over the last two and a half centuries, it is with the varieties of Russian that are spoken by ethnic Russians in

Russia today that this book is primarily concerned.

1.2

Varieties of language

The student learning a foreign language in a systematic way will

generally study a form of it, or the single form of it, which educated native speakers consider normative, e.g. ‘BBC English’, Parisian

French, Tuscan Italian, Mandarin or Cantonese. In the case of Russian this normative form is what Russians refer to as the ‘literary language’

(литeрaту´рный язы´к). However, the term ‘literary language’ suggests to an English-speaker exclusively the written language, and the

expression ‘standard Russian’ is therefore preferred in this book.

Standard Russian embraces the spoken language of educated people as

well as the written language, and its spoken form is based on educated Muscovite speech.

Study of the normative form of a language should inculcate a

standard pronunciation and vocabulary and ‘correct’ grammatical rules.

It is essential that the foreign student absorb such a norm both in order that he or she should be able to communicate with educated speakers

of the language in a way acceptable to the largest possible number of them, and in order to establish criteria in his or her own mind for

judging correctness and error in the language.

However, there comes a point in one’s study of a foreign language

when it also becomes necessary to recognise that the concept of norms is to some extent theoretical and abstract. This is so because a living language is constantly evolving and because innumerable varieties of it exist both within what is regarded as the norm and beyond the limits of that norm.

For one thing, what people consider correct changes with the

passage of time. For example, authoritative Russian dictionaries

indicate end stress throughout the future tense in the verbs помeсти´ть

and посeли´ть (помeсти´шь, etc., посeли´шь, etc.), but many educated speakers now consider помe´стишь, etc. and посe´лишь, etc. normal

and correct. As far as the historical evolution of Russian is concerned, the student needs to be aware that while the Russian of P úshkin,

Turgénev and Tolst ói is easily comprehensible to Russians today, it differs in some respects morphologically and especially lexically from 6

1.2

Varieties of language

the contemporary language. Moreover, Russian is undergoing rapid

change at the present time. This change is due to some extent to the global technological and managerial revolution of the late twentieth century, with its large new vocabulary, but also to the quite sudden breakdown of the communist order in Russia and the political,

economic, social and cultural innovations and dislocations which that breakdown has entailed. The concerns that these linguistic changes

have generated among educated Russians are dealt with in section 1.6

below.

More importantly from the point of view of this book, the language

spoken in Russia today, while having a common core, has numerous

varieties, as do modern English, French, German, Spanish and so on.

For native users of a language do not all use their language in the same way. The language they use may vary depending on such factors as

where they come from, which social group they belong to, whether

they are speaking or writing, and how formal the context is in which they are communicating. In other words varieties of language are,

in the terminology of the Romanian linguist Coseriu, diatopic (that

is to say, characteristic of a particular place, as are regional dialects), diastratic (characteristic of a certain stratum, as are social dialects), diamesic (determined by medium, e.g. whether the example of

language is written or spoken), or diaphasic (determined by degree

of formality).

The last two types of variation are particularly important for us here, since no individual speaker of a language, whatever region or class he or she emanates from and irrespective of whether he or she writes and speaks what is considered the standard form of the language, uses the language in the same way in all situations. People make linguistic

choices, which are determined by the situation in which they find

themselves, selecting certain lexical, morphological and syntactic forms from among the options available in their language. They may even

vary their pronunciation (and in Russian, their stress) according to the context. It is important for advanced learners of a language to be aware of this variety in the language’s use, both in order that they may be sensitive to the nuances of what they hear and read and in order that they themselves may use language that is appropriate in a given

situation and has the desired impact. After all, a sophisticated

expression used in the wrong context may sound laughably pompous,

while a coarse turn of phrase addressed to the wrong company may

cause offence.

Bearing in mind what has been said about variety, one needs when

studying language to reflect on the following factors. Who is using the language in a given instance, and with what intent? What form of

communication is being used? What is its subject-matter? And what is the context? In other words, one should consider the user, purpose,

medium, field and situation.

Factors relating to the speaker himself or herself which help to

determine the type of language he or she uses are the speaker’s age, 7

Varieties of language and register

sex, place of origin (see 1.5), level of education and social position or status. These factors may impinge on language directly, by affecting a person’s accent, way of addressing others, range of vocabulary and

command of grammar, and indirectly, by shaping and delimiting a

person’s knowledge and experience.

The purpose of communication in a given instance also has a bearing

on the form of language used. One may be using language merely to

impart information, as is the case for example in a scholarly article or lecture, a textbook or a weather forecast; or to persuade, as is the case in an editorial article, a lawyer’s speech in court or a political broadcast; or merely for social intercourse, as is the case in a conversation with friends. Language used for the first purpose is likely to be logical, coherent, matter-of-fact, relatively sophisticated syntactically and shorn of emotional expressiveness. Language used for the last purpose, on the other hand, is likely to be less rational and less complex syntactically, and may deploy a range of emotional and expressive resources.

The medium used for communication also significantly affects the

language used. Perhaps the most important distinction to be made

under this heading is the distinction between spoken and written

forms of language. The distinction has been defined by David Crystal in the following way. Speech is time-bound and transient. The speaker has particular addressees in mind. Because of the probable lack of

forethought and the speed of delivery the constructions used are

relatively simple and loose. There is a higher incidence of coordinating conjunctions than subordinating conjunctions. Spoken language may

incorporate slang, nonsense words and obscenity. Utterances may be

repeated or rephrased and comments interpolated. It is prone to error, but there is an opportunity for the speaker to reformulate what has

been said. Such factors as loudness, intonation, tempo, rhythm and

pause play an important role. In the event of face-to-face

communication extra-linguistic aids to communication might be used,

such as expression, gesture and posture. Speech is suited to social

intercourse, the expression of personal feelings, opinions and attitudes.

Writing, on the other hand, is space-bound and permanent. The

writer is separated from the person addressed, that is to say the reader.

The written language tends to be carefully organised and its syntax

relatively intricate. There is a higher incidence of subordination in it than there is in speech. Documents may be edited and corrected

before they are disseminated and format and graphic conventions may

strengthen their impact. Writing is suited to the recording of facts and the exposition of ideas. It should be noted, though, that there is no simple correlation between speech and informality, on the one hand,

and writing and formality on the other. While the written language

tends to be more formal than the spoken language it is not necessarily so. For example, the written language in the form of a letter to a

partner, friend or relation is likely to be less formal than such examples of the spoken language as an academic lecture, a radio or television interview, or a political speech.

1.3

Registers

As for field, language is affected by subject-matter in an obvious

way, inasmuch as fields of activity and branches of knowledge have

their special terminology, for example, political, philosophical,

scientific, medical, musical, literary, sporting, professional and so forth.

However, the effect of field on language may go further than

terminology. Groups have distinctive ways of expressing themselves:

doctors, for example, are likely to describe patients’ symptoms in

language altogether different from that used by patients themselves.

Finally, regarding situation, one’s mode of expression may be affected by the nature of the relationship that exists between the user and the person or people with whom he or she is communicating. Language is

likely to vary according to such factors as whether one is speaking, for example, to one’s elders (with any one of a range of nuances from

respect, deference, sympathy or affection to condescension or

intolerance), to children (lovingly, reproachfully, sternly), to a superior or junior at work, or to an intimate or a stranger.

1.3

Registers

The varieties of language that result from the interaction of the factors described in 1.2 represent stylistic levels which, in common with authors of other books in this series, we shall term registers. 3 Although the number of registers that may be identified is quite large, for the purposes of this book a scale will be used on which three main

registers are marked (low, neutral and high). These registers will be referred to throughout the book as R1, R2 and R3, respectively.

Beyond the first of these registers lie demotic speech (1.3.2) and vulgar language (5.6) and within R3 lie various functional styles (функционa´льныe сти´ли) which will be classified here as scientific or academic style, official, legal or business style, and the styles of journalism and political debate (1.3.4).

These registers, which are examined in more detail below, broadly

speaking reflect a spectrum ranging from informality, in the case of R1, to formality, in the case of R3. Insofar as this spectrum reveals a view of language as low (сни´жeнный), neutral (нeйтрa´льный) or high (высо´кий), it may be traced back in Russia to the work of the poet, scientist and student of language Lomon ósov, who in his Прeдuсло´вue о nо´льзe кнuг цeрко´вных в росси´йском языкe´ ( Preface on the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language, 1758) famously defined three linguistic styles (ни´зкий, посрe´дствeнный, высо´кий) and laid down the genres in which it seemed appropriate to use each of them. To a

considerable extent this spectrum of register runs parallel to that which ranges from the colloquial form of spoken Russian at one end to a

bookish form of the written language at the other (although, as has

already been noted in the previous section, certain spoken media may be more formal than certain written media).

It is important to appreciate that the boundaries between linguistic registers are constantly shifting. In particular it should be noted with 9

Varieties of language and register

regard to modern, post-Soviet Russian that what only recently might

have been considered improper at a higher level than R1 may now be

considered quite acceptable, or at least might be widely used, in R2.

Similarly, what was recently felt to be sub-standard may now be

widespread in R1. This lowering of boundaries and the broadening of

what was previously considered the standard, and also reactions to

these changes, are examined in more detail in 1.6 below.

Passages exemplifying the various registers described in this section are provided, with translation and commentary, in Chapter 2.

1.3.1

The colloquial register (R1)

The principal function of this register is social intercourse. Its medium is dialogue or conversation and its field is one’s personal relationships and practical everyday dealings with others. It is therefore distinguished by relative spontaneity, simplicity and the absence of forethought or technical or official tone. Non-lexical features, such as intonation, pauses, stress, rhythm and tempo, play an important part in it. Meaning is reinforced by non-linguistic resources such as facial expression and gesture. The function, medium and field of the register account for

many of the factors which it tends to exhibit in the areas of

pronunciation, vocabulary and phraseology, word-formation,

morphology and syntax.

pronunciation

Articulation is often careless and indistinct, and vowels may be reduced or consonants lost as a result of lazy or rapid delivery, e.g. gr u (говорю´), zdrássti (здрa´вствуй), u t i a´ (y тeбя´), tóka (то´лько), vašš e´ (вообщe´), p iis a´t (пятьдeся´т). Local accent is marked (e.g. with a´кaньe and associated phenomena оr о´кaньe, treatment of g as occlusive or fricative; see 1.5). Stress may differ from the accepted norm (e.g.

до´говор, при´говор, позво´нишь, рaзви´лось, рaзви´лись instead

of догово´р, пригово´р, позвони´шь, рaзвило´сь, рaзвили´сь,

respectively).

vocabulary

This tends to be basic and concrete since the register is concerned with the practicalities of life. All parts of speech are represented in numerous colloquial forms, i.e. nouns (e.g. зaди´рa, bully; кaрто´шкa, potato; толкотня´, crush, scrum); adjectives (e.g. долговя´зый, lanky; дото´шный, meticulous; мудрёный, odd; рaботя´щий, hard-working; рaсхля´бaнный, lax); verbs (e.g. aртa´читься, to dig one’s heels in (fig); дры´хнуть and вздрeмну´ть (pf ), to have a nap; вопи´ть, to wail, howl; впихну´ть (pf ), to cram in; гро´хнуть(ся) (pf ), to bang, crash; eхи´дничaть, to gossip maliciously; куролe´сить, to play tricks; мe´шкaть, to linger, loiter; огоро´шить (pf ), to take aback; пeрeбa´рщивaть, to overdo (lit to make too much borshch); помeрe´ть (pf ), to die; прихворну´ть (pf ), to be unwell; сeкрe´тничaть, to be secretive; тaрaто´рить, to jabber, natter; тормоши´ть, to pull about, pester); adverbs (e.g. бa´стa, enough; вконe´ц, completely; втихомо´лку, оn the quiet; дaвнe´нько, for quite some time now; исподтишкa´, on the sly; ми´гом, in a flash; многовa´то, a bit too 10

1.3

Registers

much/many; нaгишо´м, stark naked; нeдосу´г, haven’t/hasn’t got time (to do sth); помaлe´ньку, gradually, gently, tolerably; потихо´ньку, slowly, softly, on the sly; хорошe´нько, well and truly; чaстe´нько, quite often; чу´точку, a tiny bit); and pronouns (э´тaкий, what a/such a). Some colloquial words are derived from the same root as non-colloquial words (e.g.

кaрто´шкa, cf. кaрто´фeль; помeрe´ть, cf. умeрe´ть).

r The speaker has frequent recourse to various types of filler words (e.g.

знa´чит, ти´пa, кa´к бы, в смы´слe), hesitation markers (e.g. гм),

comment clauses (e.g. прeдстa´вь сeбe´; see 5.3 on all of these), and attempts to engage an interlocutor, real or imagined (e.g. знaéшь,

понимaéтe, ви´дитe). The language’s means of expressing emotion,

notably modal particles (e.g. вeдь, жe; see 5.4) and interjections (e.g. ax, тсс; 5.5), may be exploited. Informal modes of address predominate (7.2–7.3). People conversing in the colloquial register are more likely to address each other as ты than as вы and to call each

other by their first names, indeed by diminutive forms of them (7.3.1),

than by the combined first name and patronymic.

phraseology

Idioms (5.7) and expressive turns of phrase are used, giving a variety of tones, for example ironic, scornful, jocular. Phraseology may be

structurally distinctive, e.g. бe´з году нeдe´ля, only a few days; глядe´ть

в о´бa, to be on one’s guard; ждaть нe дождa´ться, to be on tenterhooks; из ко´жи вон лeзть, to do one’s utmost; тaнцeвa´ть от пe´чки, to start again from the beginning; э´то eжу´ я´сно, any fool could see it (lit it’s clear to a hedgehog).

word-formation

Bookish suffixes, especially those of Old Church Slavonic origin, are relatively scarce, but many other noun suffixes (see 8.7) abound and indeed occur mainly in this register, e.g. -a´к (простa´к, simple-minded fellow); -я´к (добря´к, good-natured bloke); -a´кa (зeвa´кa, idler); -я´кa (гуля´кa, playboy); -a´н (стaрикa´н, old chap); -я´н (грубия´н, boor); -a´ч

(бородa´ч, bloke with a beard ); -a´ш (aлкa´ш, alcoholic; торгa´ш, small trader, mercenary person); -ёжкa (зубрёжкa, cramming, i.e. study); -eнь

(бa´ловeнь, spoilt brat); -лa (вороти´лa, bigwig); -лкa (рaздeвa´лкa, cloakroom); -ня´ (возня´, row, racket); -отня´ (бeготня´, running about, bustle); -тя´й (лeнтя´й, lazy person); -у´н (болту´н, chatterbox); -у´хa (толсту´хa, fat woman); -ы´ш (мaлы´ш, kid ); -я´гa (бeдня´гa, poor devil ).

Diminutive and pejorative suffixes (8.8) indicate a speaker’s attitudes, e.g. -о´к (сыно´к, dear son); -и´шкa (лгуни´шкa, wretched liar); -и´шко

(городи´шко, little town or ghastly town); -и´щa (бороди´щa, hideous beard ). The adjectival suffix -у´щий (большу´щий, whacking great), the adjectival prefix прe- (прeглу´пый, really stupid ), and the verbal suffix

-ничaть (бродя´жничaть, to be a tramp) are also characteristic of the colloquial register.

morphology

In some masculine nouns certain forms may be preferred to standard

forms in some cases, e.g. prep sg in -у´ (в отпускуínstead of в о´тпускe, on leave; 9.1.5); nom pl in -a´ (сeкторaínstead of сe´кторы, sectors;

9.1.6); gen pl in zero ending (грaмм, помидо´р instead of гpa´ммов, of 11

Varieties of language and register

grammes, помидо´ров, of tomatoes; 9.1.7). Diminutive forms of first names may be used in a truncated vocative form, e.g. Taнь, Tania

(7.3.1). The suffix -eй may be preferred in short comparatives (e.g.

быстрe´й instead of быстрeé, quicker) and the prefix пo- is commonly attached to such comparatives (e.g. полу´чшe, a bit better, 9.3.3). The infinitive forms видa´ть, слыхa´ть may be preferred to ви´дeть, to see, слы´шaть, to hear (3.4). There is a tendency to simplification, which entails weakening of certain grammatical rules, e.g. a speaker may

fail to decline all components of a numeral in an oblique case (11.4.3,

note 2) or both parts of a compound word (e.g. полго´дом рa´ньшe,

half a year earlier, instead of полуго´дом). Forms may be used which strictly speaking are grammatically incorrect, e.g. Tы умнeé нa´шeго

instead of Tы умнeé нaс, You’re brighter than us, and even к пe´рвому

мa´рту instead of к пe´рвому мa´ртa, by 1 March. Nouns may be used in a case that is incorrect after the preposition that governs them. Thus the dative case is commonly used after по in expressions of time such as по истeчe´нию, on expiry, in which the preposition means upon, after, and should strictly speaking govern the prepositional case (по

истeчe´нии; R3).

syntax

r The nature of the colloquial register makes for sentences consisting of only one word (e.g. дa, yes; нeт, nо; вон, get away; мaрш, forward; кa´к

жe, of course (iron); пожa´луйстa, please), incomplete sentences, and simple sentences. In complex sentences coordinating conjunctions are much more frequent than subordinating conjunctions. Syntax may be

disjointed, with repetitions (e.g. дa, дa, дa, yes, yes, yes), weak links, breaks in sentences and interpolations of various sorts (e.g. providing comment, clarification or correction). Questions and exclamations

abound. Rules dictating the government of words may be relaxed, e.g.

a preposition might govern an infinitive (нaсчёт поговори´ть, about having a chat) or might be combined with a word other than a noun, pronoun or adjective (Oтло´жим рaзгово´р нa по´слe обe´дa, Let’s put off our conversation until after dinner). Speakers frequently resort to ellipsis e.g. Я к вaм, I’m [coming] to [see] you; 11.13) and other distinctive constructions, which may involve various types of complex predicate, e.g. Cтоя´лa пe´лa, [She] was standing singing; Oн возьми´ дa и зaкричи´, He went and shouted; онa´ то´лько и дe´лaeт, что, she does nothing but; знa´й сeбe´ идёт, He’s walking along quite unconcerned (11.13). Predicates in such constructions may contain particles, e.g. Haписa´ть-то

нaпишу´, но онa´ нe отвe´тит, Well, I’ll write, but she won’t reply (5.4) or they may consist of interjections, e.g. стук, banged (5.5).

It is worth adding, finally, that the low style is notable for what it lacks as well as for what it contains. It eschews the complex subordinate

clauses, gerunds, active participles and passive constructions involving reflexive verbs that are characteristic of the high style as well as much sophisticated or specialised vocabulary and many set phrases and

formulae.

1.3

Registers

1.3.2

Demotic speech (D)

Beneath the normal colloquial register, which may be used by all social groups in informal situations, there are other linguistic strata whose elements, unlike much in R1, may still sound more or less

unacceptable and discordant in R2. These strata include what will here be termed ‘demotic’ (просторe´чиe, which is sometimes also translated as ‘popular speech’), as well as youth slang (молодёжный слeнг; see

5.1.4), thieves’ cant (блaтно´й язы´к), prison slang (тюрe´мный жaрго´н) and vulgar language (5.6).

Demotic is the spontaneous, informal speech of the uneducated (or,

if it is used by the educated, then it is used for special effect). It lies outside the bounds of what is considered the literary standard (though, as has been said, that standard is constantly shifting and continually admits elements which were recently considered unacceptable). Unlike the various registers embraced by the standard language, demotic

speech observes no norms. It is distinguished to some extent, as

illustrated by the following examples of features of mainly Muscovite просторe´чиe, by stress and morphological and syntactic peculiarities, but above all by a layer of racy vocabulary.

stress

r Some nouns are stressed on a different syllable from that which bears the stress in the standard language, e.g. доку´мeнт (докумe´нт,

document); кило´мeтр (киломe´тр, kilometre); мaгa´зин (мaгaзи´н, shop); мо´лодeжь (молодёжь, youth); по´ртфeль (портфe´ль (m), briefcase); шо´фeр (шофёр, driver).

r Stress variation also affects some verb forms, e.g. зво´нишь, etc.

(standard звони´шь, you ring); гнa´лa (гнaлa´, chased ); отдa´лa (отдaлa´, gave back), and the short forms of past passive participles, e.g.

привe´дeно (привeдeно´, brought); привe´зeно (привeзeно´, brought ( by transport)); принe´сeно (принeсeно´, brought ( by hand )).

vocabulary

Use of words considered unacceptable in standard usage, e.g. nouns

such as бaлбe´с, coarse, idle person; бaшкa´, head, nut; зaбулды´гa, debauched person; обрaзи´нa, ugly mug; пу´зо, belly, gut; хaпу´гa, thief, scrounger ; adjectives such as му´торный, disagreeable and dreary; нaхрa´пистый, high-handed; verbs such as бaрaхли´ть, to stutter (of engine, machine, heart); брeхa´ть (брeшу´, брe´шeшь), to bark, talk nonsense, tell lies; дрe´йфить/сдрe´йфить, to be a coward; лимо´нить/слимо´нить, to nick; нaли´зывaться/нaлизa´ться, to get pissed; обaлдeвa´ть/обaлдe´ть, to become stupefied; околпa´чивaть/околпa´чить, to fool, dupe; оття´гивaться/оттяну´ться, to have a good time, to have fun; рeхну´ться (pf ), to go off one’s head; спeрe´ть (pf; сопру´, сопрёшь), to nick; укоко´шить (pf ), to kill, knock off; улeпётывaть/улeпeтну´ть, to rush off; хa´пaть/хa´пнуть, to pinch, scrounge; and adverbs such as дa´вeчa, recently; отродя´сь, never in one’s life.

word-formation

Use of the verbal suffix -aну´ть (see also 8.11), e.g. звeздaну´ть (pf ), to bash; сaдaну´ть (pf ), to hit hard, bash.

Varieties of language and register

morphology

The nominative plural form in -a´ for masculine nouns is more

widespread than in the standard language (e.g. шофeрa´, drivers)

(9.1.6).

r Types of declension may be confused, e.g. use of -ов as a genitive plural flexion for nouns other than masculine nouns, as in мeсто´в (see also 1.5.3).

r The form ско´лько врe´мя?, how much time/what is the time? in which the noun is not declined (instead of standard ско´лько

врe´мeни?).

r Verbal conjugations may also be confused (e.g. мaхa´ю instead of мaшу´, from мaхa´ть, I wave), or other non-standard forms may be found (e.g.

жгётся instead of жжётся, it burns).

r Use of certain non-standard imperative forms, e.g. eдь instead of eшь, eat, and e´хaй instead of поeзжa´й, go ( by transport).

r Non-reflexive forms may be substituted for reflexive forms, especially in gerunds and active participles, e.g. сидe´л зaду´мaвши instead of сидe´л зaду´мaвшись, sat thinking, and зaгорe´вший дом instead of зaгорe´вшийся дом, the house which has caught fire.

r Use of past passive participial forms in -тый where in the standard language the ending -нный would be used, e.g. порвa´тый

(по´рвaнный, torn).

syntax

r Loose and broad use of prepositions, e.g. чe´рeз in the sense of because of (из-зa), e.g. чe´рeз нeго´ опоздa´л(a), I was late because of him. Non-standard use of prepositions after verbs, e.g. (standard forms in

brackets) бeспоко´иться про кого´-н (о ком-н), to worry about sb, and рa´довaться о чём-н (рa´довaться чeму´-н), to be glad at sth.

1.3.3

The neutral register (R2)

This is the norm of an educated speaker, the standard form of the

language that is used for polite but not especially formal

communication. It might be used in broadcasting, among colleagues at work, by educated people who do not know each other very well, by

teachers to their pupils. It is the register that the foreign student as a rule first learns and which is most suitable for his or her first official or social contacts with native speakers. It is ‘correct’ without being fussy or pedantic. This register is perhaps best defined in negative terms, as lacking the distinctive colloquial features of R1 and the bookish

features of R3, though it may to some extent contain elements of both without altogether taking on a colloquial or bookish colouring. Both forms of address, ты and вы, are possible in R2, depending on the

degree of intimacy between the people speaking. First names and

patronymics are likely to be used between acquaintances. On the other 14

1.3

Registers

hand, secondary diminutive forms of first names (e.g. Haтa´шeнькa,

Ta´нeчкa; see 7.3.1) might seem overfamiliar.

1.3.4

The higher register (R3)

This register is most commonly the vehicle for ideas which have been thought out in advance and are expressed in uninterrupted

monologue. The exposition of such ideas may follow established

patterns. Language in the higher register is therefore relatively well organised and formal and may have recourse to set phrases and

formulaic expressions. It eschews elements that can be identified as colloquial (1.3.1), including regional variation (1.5). Vocabulary may be sophisticated, specialised or terminological. Syntax may be

complex. Constructions containing reflexive verbs used in a passive

sense (11.8), gerunds (11.11.1) and active participles (11.11.2) are used freely. Nouns in the same case, especially the genitive, may be

‘threaded’ together (so-called нaни´зывaниe пaдeжe´й), e.g.

прeдстaви´тeль Mинистe´рствa вну´трeнних дeл Гeрмa´нии, (lit) a

representative of the Ministry of the Interior of Germany. Nouns may be preceded by adjectival phrases containing nouns, e.g. пe´рвоe в ми´рe коммунисти´чeскоe госудa´рство, the first communist state in the world.

Within this register the following functional styles may be identified.

(a)

Academic/scientific style (нaу´чный стиль)

The purpose of this functional style is to report information. The style may be appropriate in any medium from a monograph, learned article

or textbook to a lecture or seminar. It may also be used in many fields, indeed in any academic discipline from the natural sciences (e.g.

physics, chemistry and biology), through the social sciences (e.g.

politics, sociology and economics) to the humanities (e.g. philosophy, philology and the study of literature). (It should be noted that the Russian word нaу´кa, like the German word Wissenschaft, has a broader range than the English science, embracing all academic work, not merely the natural and social sciences.) The language of the academic style is characterised by logical and orderly development (hence the copious use of transition words (5.2)). It is carefully formulated with explanation of the relationships between things (hence the use of

numerous subordinating conjunctions (11.12.2)). Choice of words is precise. Much vocabulary is terminological and words are used in their literal meanings. Verbs which would occur in R1/R2 might be

replaced by phrases consisting of verb + verbal noun (e.g. происхо´дит

рост instead of рaстёт, grows; имeéт мe´сто повышe´ниe тeмпeрaту´ры

instead of повышaéтся тeмпeрaту´рa, the temperature rises). Various means are used to express a copula for which English would use some

form of the verb to be, e.g. состои´т из, зaключaéтся в, прeдстaвляéт

собо´й, all meaning is (4.2). This style is shorn of artistry and lacks the expressive devices of the colloquial language described in 1.3.1.

Varieties of language and register

(b)

Official/business style (официa´льно-дeлово´й стиль)

Like the academic style, this functional style has as its purpose

communication in the sense of reporting. It may be found in treaties, legislation, regulations, codes of practice, forms, certificates, official correspondence and even public notices. Its field spans diplomacy, law, administration and commerce and even some of the standard methods

of address in letters (7.17). Whereas in other styles clicheś may be a defect, here they are more or less de rigueur. The language of this style is therefore characterised by numerous formulae, e.g.: в отвe´т нa Baш

зaпро´с, in reply to your enquiry (7.17); свидe´тeльствовaть кому´-либо

увaжe´ниe, to pay one’s respects to sb; в рaбо´чeм поря´дкe, in due course; в

обы´чном рeжи´мe, when things are normal (a Putinism, it seems).

Material is arranged according to some generally accepted form.

Terminology abounds. So also do the following phenomena: set

phrases (e.g. вступи´ть в си´лу, to come into effect; исполня´ть

обя´зaнности, to fulfil obligations; подлeжи´т подтвeрждe´нию, is subject to confirmation); abbreviations (6.9); verbal nouns (see e.g. 8.7.1);

prepositional phrases based on a noun (e.g. в дe´лe, in the matter of; в

соотвe´тствии с, in conformity with; с цe´лью, with the object of ); complex conjunctions (ввиду´ того´, что, in view of the fact that; в связи´ с тeм, что, in connection with the fact that; вслe´дствиe того´, что, owing to the fact that; see 11.12.3); and formulaic links (нa слу´чaй, e´сли, in the event that; c тeм усло´виeм, что, оn condition that). Word order tends to be straightforward. The official/business style is impersonal and eschews the expressive resources of the colloquial register. It is also relatively stable and resistant to change.

(c)

The styles of journalism and political debate

(публицисти´чeский стиль)

This functional style, or set of styles, differs from the

academic/scientific and the official/business styles in that it may be designed to persuade as well as to record or inform. Its medium may

be serious journalistic reporting in written form (in which case its purpose may be primarily informative) or journalistic comment, a

polemical article, a political speech, propaganda, a pamphlet, or even a slogan (in which case its primary purpose is to persuade, to influence opinion). The style is characterised by socio-political vocabulary. It easily absorbs neologisms (5.1). It resorts to certain stereotypes and clicheś (дaть зeлёную у´лицу, to give the green light) and periphrasis (e.g.

вы´рaзить нaдe´жду, to express the hope; окa´зывaть по´мощь, to render assistance; питa´ть нe´нaвисть, to harbour hatred; принимa´ть рeшe´ниe, to take a decision; производи´ть осмо´тр, to carry out an inspection).

Introductory constructions indicate the source of information (e.g. кaк

сообщaéт нaш коррeспондe´нт, as our correspondent reports; по дa´нным, according to information). Unlike the academic and official styles, the styles of journalism and political debate make use of such graphic,

1.3

Registers

emotive and expressive resources of the language as rhetorical devices, repetition, parallelism and exclamation. They are mainly bookish but elements of colloquial language are used to lend them vitality.

1.3.5

Styles of belles-lettres (сти´ли худо´жeствeнной

литeрaту´ры)

Account must also be taken of the language used by the creative artist, although this language stands apart from the scale of register that

stretches from the colloquial informality of R1 to the mainly bookish formality of R3. Unlike the varieties of language dealt with in 1.3.1 to

1.3.4 inclusive, the language of the work of imaginative literature has an aesthetic function as well as a communicative one. It may be

contrasted in particular with the academic style of R3, which

expounds ideas in conceptual terms and literally, for the language of the work of art expresses ideas with the help of images and uses words in non-literal ways. The medium of the language of belles-lettres may be a poem, a play, a short story, a novel, or even a song. As for register, the language of belles-lettres may, according to the author’s purpose and subject-matter, embrace all the registers and styles examined in

1.3.1 to 1.3.4, even the demotic and – nowadays – the vulgar. Unlike the impersonal, objective styles of R3 (academic/scientific and official/

business), it may be personal and subjective. It makes use of the

resources that the language possesses for expressing emotion and

attitude (e.g. modal particles, interjections, diminutive and pejorative suffixes, the syntax of R1). It may deploy dialect words, jargon,

professional or common parlance or archaisms to lend a particular

colouring. Tone may be varied, from the elevated to the ironic or

parodic.

1.3.6

Language of the internet (язы´к интeрнe´тa)

Finally, mention must be made of the language used on the internet in all its forms, e.g. the world-wide web (Mировa´я пaути´нa), email

(элeктро´ннaя по´чтa) and chatrooms (чa´ты; sg чaт). Netspeak, as the language of the internet may be called in English, contains features of both written and spoken language as they were defined in 1.2 above, following Crystal. Since the world-wide web may be used for

informative purposes and as a reference source it contains much

material couched in the formal written registers. (Some Russian

websites (сa´йты; sg сaйт) that are of particular use for students of Russian are indicated in the section on Sources.) The language of the chatroom, on the other hand, is highly informal. It does resemble a

written medium, inasmuch as it may be edited before dissemination

and a record of it remains after it has been disseminated, but at the same time it comes close to (without quite attaining) the immediacy of speech. The language of email comes midway between these extremes,

Varieties of language and register

since email is a medium that resembles written correspondence but is generally less formal and is (or is perceived as) more transient. There are grounds, then, for seeing Netspeak as a third medium which, in its totality, embodies features of both writing and speech and which is

capable of spawning further new varieties of language.

While use of personal computers is now widespread in Russia

among young people, especially in the cities, it may be that Russian users of the internet are still less broadly representative of the Russian population as a whole than are British internet users of the British population as a whole. Nevertheless the introduction of information

technology into Russia has had a significant impact on the Russian

language, at least in the fields of lexis and phraseology. A large new vocabulary has developed, most of it of English origin. This

vocabulary, on such matters as hardware and software,

word-processing, and use of the world-wide web and email, is dealt

with at 5.1.5, under the general heading of neologisms. At the same time Russian, like English, has developed a distinctive informal register for use in forms of two-way electronic communication. In email this

register is characterised by lightly edited or unedited composition, simple syntax and casual forms of greeting and farewell (see 2.13

below). In chatrooms it is characterised by the tendency to spell words as they are pronounced, recourse to slang, adoption of screen names

(ни´ки; sg ник) by participants, unconventional punctuation, and use of symbols (smileys (смa´йлики; sg смa´йлик) or emoticons) to indicate

moods and reactions (see 2.2 below).

There is of course debate as to the extent to which the new

linguistic usage promoted by the internet should be welcomed or

resisted. To linguistic purists of the sort whose views are described in

1.6 below, the internet may be the bearer of bad linguistic habits. On the other hand, it has been argued, by Nikolai Pereiáslov in a recent article (see Sources), that the internet is capable of transmitting good works of literature alongside the vulgar or pornographic material that is associated with it in the minds of many people. Russians would be unwise, according to this view, to spurn the ‘literary continent’ that is developing on the internet, lest ‘internet literature’ (интeрнe´т-

литeрaту´рa) drift away to an abroad which they will have to discover at a later date, just as in Soviet times they had to discover other, earlier forms of Russian émigré literature.

1.4

Illustration of register in vocabulary

The following table briefly illustrates the levels of language that have been discussed, as they are manifested in Russian lexis, by showing

some of the colloquial and high equivalents (R1 and R3 respectively) of the basic neutral words (R2) that are given in the middle column.

The table is arranged in accordance with the alphabetical order of the neutral Russian words.

1.5

Regional variation in Russian

глядe´лки (pl)

глaзa´

eyes

о´чи (sg о´ко; poet)

бaшкa´

головa´

head

глaвa´

дe´вкa

дe´вушкa

girl

дeви´цa

бa´бки (pl), кaпу´стa

дe´ньги (pl)

money

срe´дствa (pl)

кумe´кaть (impf )

ду´мaть (impf ) to think

мы´слить (impf )

хaрчи´ (pl)

eдa´

food

пи´щa

ку´шaть (impf ),

eсть (impf )

to eat

вкушa´ть (impf )

жрaть (impf; D)

бa´бa

жeнa´

wife

супру´гa

бa´бa

жe´нщинa

woman

дa´мa

мо´рдa, ро´жa (D)

лицо´

face

лик

мa´мa, мaмa´шa (D)

мaть (f )

mother

роди´тeльницa

колёсa (pl; sg колeсо´), мaши´нa

car

aвтомоби´ль (m)

тa´чкa (slang)

у´ймa

мно´го

much/a lot

мно´жeство

пa´рeнь (m)

молодо´й

young man

ю´ношa

чeловe´к

мужи´к

муж

husband

супру´г

нaгоня´й

нaкaзa´ниe

punishment кa´рa

нaпa´сть (f )

нeсчa´стьe

misfortune

бe´дствиe

одёжa

одe´ждa

clothes

плa´тьe

пa´пa, пaпa´шa,

отe´ц

father

роди´тeль (m;

бa´тя (D)

parent in R2)

подмо´гa

по´мощь (f )

help

содe´йствиe

лa´пa ( paw in R2)

рукa´

hand

длaнь (f )

кaю´к

смeрть (f )

death

кончи´нa

дры´хнуть (impf )

спaть

to sleep

почивa´ть (impf )

стaрикa´н

стaри´к

old man

стa´рeц

отдa´ть концы´∗

умирa´ть/

to die

скончa´ться (pf)

умeрe´ть

∗ The verbs околeвa´ть/околe´ть and подыхa´ть/подо´хнуть, which also mean to die and in R2 are used only of animals, may in R1 be used of humans, in which case they have a pejorative tone.

1.5

Regional variation in Russian

Account must be taken, when considering variety in a language, of the existence of geographic as well as social dialects. The higher and

neutral registers of a language (R3 and R2) are subject to little, if any, 19

Varieties of language and register

regional variation, but the colloquial form (R1) does vary from one

region to another, both when used by relatively uneducated speakers

and even when used by educated speakers in informal situations.

Regional features often reflect archaic usage that has died out in the standard language and infringe that language’s grammatical norms,

which the foreign learner is expected to observe.

Considering the enormous size of the territory of the Russian

Federation (which stretches over 8,000 kilometres from the border

with Belarus in the west to the Bering Strait in the east and some

3,000 kilometres from the Kola Peninsula in the north to the Caucasus in the south and covers in all an area of some 10.5 million square

kilometres) the Russian language is surprisingly uniform. The Russian spoken on the Pacific coast in Vladivost ók, for example, is easily

comprehensible to the Muscovite. This relative uniformity (compared

to the greater phonological differences in a much smaller country such as Switzerland) results from the frequent migrations of populations and the lack of major geographical barriers within the country. It has been reinforced in post-revolutionary Russia by such processes as

urbanisation and the spread of literacy. Nevertheless, there is regional variation in Russian, in pronunciation, vocabulary, morphology and

syntax.

The foreign student is not advised to use regional linguistic features, which do not belong in the standard language or higher registers and which may in any case seem out-of-place unless all the distinctive

features of a particular dialect are deployed consistently and

comprehensively. The following sections are therefore intended only to give a superficial impression of the extent of regional variation in Russian and to draw attention to a few of the salient regional features.

A number of the linguistic terms used in this section are explained in the Glossary.

1.5.1

Standard pronunciation

The regional features listed in 1.5.3 below are deviations from the standard, to which reference is made, unless otherwise indicated,

elsewhere in this book. The lexical, morphological and syntactic

features of standard Russian are examined in the following chapters, but since standard pronunciation is not dealt with elsewhere it is as well to list here a few of the phonological features of Muscovite speech on which, owing to the status of Moscow as the capital city, standard

pronunciation is based.

r a´кaньe: a and o are both pronounced as a when they occur in the syllable before the stress or in the initial syllable of a word, e.g. trava´

(трaвa´), savá (совa´), ablaká (облaкa´). In other unstressed positions both vowels may be reduced to { (like the reduced vowel at the beginning

of English about), e.g. m{ lakо´ (молоко´).

1.5

Regional variation in Russian

r и´кaньe: after soft consonants é and á are both pronounced as i´ when they occur in the syllable before the stress, e.g. n islá (нeслa´), vz ilá (взялa´), č isу´ (чaсы´). This phenomenon is characteristic of many C

dialects as well as the standard language.

r In the standard language, as in the N regional dialect and many

C dialects (see 1.5.2), the voiced velar g is an occlusive sound (like Eng g). Voiceless g becomes k, e.g. nok (ног), sn ek (снeг).

r There are four labiodental fricatives, i.e. hard voiced v and soft voiced v and hard unvoiced f and soft unvoiced f . At the end of a word or before a voiceless consonant v and v are devoiced, e.g. drof (дров), láfka (лa´вкa), gotóf t e (гото´вьтe).

r There are two distinct affricates, the hard hissing affricate c, as in cygán (цыгa´н), and the soft hushing affricate č as in č aj (чaй). (This distinction is also observed in most S and C dialects.)

1.5.2

Classification of Russian dialects

Dialects are defined not by a single phenomenon but by a set of

phenomena, on the basis of a so-called bundle of isoglosses. However, the isoglosses defining the territorial limits of the use of one

phenomenon do not necessarily coincide neatly with isoglosses relating to another phenomenon. Identification and classification of Russian

dialects is therefore a complex matter that will not be addressed here, except insofar as it is possible to make a broad distinction between the following regional forms of Russian that may be heard in European

Russia.

(a)

The N regional dialects (сe´вeрноe нaрe´чиe), i.e. the Russian spoken north of a line running a little to the north of N óvgorod, Tver and N´ızhnii N óvgorod (but excluding St Petersburg). This regional dialect embraces such groups of local dialects as the Ládoga-T´ıkhvin group, the V ólogda group and the Kostromá group. The N regional dialect is characterised especially by о´кaньe and use of occlusive g.

(b)

The S regional dialect (ю´жноe нaрe´чиe), i.e. the Russian spoken from the borders of Belarus and Ukraine in the west and south and up to a line passing through Kol ómna, to the north of Kal úga and Riazán.

This regional dialect embraces a SW group of dialects around

Smolénsk (influenced by Belorussian features), an Upper Dnepr group, an Upper Desná group around Briansk, the Kursk and Ori ól group,

and a group including the Russian of Riazán, Tamb óv and Vor ónezh.

The S regional dialect is characterised especially by a´кaньe and use of fricative .

(c)

The C dialects (срeднeру´сскиe го´воры), i.e. the Russian spoken in the lateral strip of territory running from the border with Belarus in the west. This group of dialects embraces the N óvgorod group and the

Pskov group in the west, the group around Moscow, and the group

Varieties of language and register

around Vlad´ımir to the east. These transitional dialects exhibit varying mixtures of N and S regional features such as о´кaньe and a´кaньe,

occlusive g and fricative .

1.5.3

Regional features

This section lists some of the principal regional deviations from the standard form of the language which the foreign student will normally learn and indicates in which broad regions these variations from the norm might be encountered. It should be borne in mind that although

these deviations may be found in the language of belles-lettres they will generally be altogether absent from the styles classified in 1.3.4 as R3a, R3b and R3c and may occur only infrequently in R2. The

degree to which they will occur in R1 will depend on such factors as the speaker’s background, education, age and experience, the

circumstances in which he or she is speaking and the identity of the person being addressed. In general one may expect such features to

occur more markedly in the speech of the poorly educated rural or

provincial dweller. It is also important to emphasise that regional

features are not so strong as to make any dialect incomprehensible to the speakers of another dialect or to speakers of the standard language.

Note:

letters in brackets in this section (e.g. N, S, C, NE, SW) indicate the region(s) in which the features in question may be encountered. However, they do not imply that the feature is exclusive to that area or universal in it, even among the sort of speakers whose speech may exhibit dialect features.

pronunciation

я´кaньe, e.g. t ap eŕ (тeпe´рь), n as i (нeси´), s alо´ (сeло´), n asú (нeсу´) (i.e.

(cf. 1.5.1)

strong я´кaньe; SE); or before hard consonants only, e.g. s aló (сeло´), n asú (нeсу´) (i.e. moderate я´кaньe; SW).

r о´кaньe, e.g. sová (совa´) (N regional and some C dialects).

r Fricative , e.g. na á (ногa´). Correspondingly, devoiced becomes x, e.g. nox (ног), sn ex (снeг) (S regional dialect). In some SW regions bordering on Belarus and Ukraine g becomes h.

r Labiodental v and v, when they occur at the end of a word or syllable, are pronounced as bilabial w, e.g. drow (дров), láwka (лa´вкa) (most S

and many W and NE dialects).

r Initial v may become u, e.g. um eśte (вмe´стe), u górod (в го´род), and some homophones may result, e.g. внёс, унёс (both pronounced un ós) (some S dialects).

r цо´кaньe, e.g. caj (чaй), cуśto (чи´сто), cúdo (чу´до), i.e. hard цо´кaньe (NW and also many C and SE dialects); or caj, cisto, cudo, i.e. soft цо´кaньe (NE dialects).

r Assimilation producing the long consonant m from the combination bm, e.g. ommán (обмa´н) (some N dialects).

1.5

Regional variation in Russian

r Simplification of the group st to s in final position, e.g. mos (мост) (some N and a few S dialects).

r Occurrence in some words of the combination mn instead of standard vn, especially damnó (дaвно´) and ramnó (рaвно´) (some N and S

dialects).

stress

r Tendency to more innovatory stress in the S dialects, e.g. movement of stress from prefix to stem in the past tense of certain verbs (о´тдaл →

отдa´л, gave back); shift of stress from preposition to noun in certain phrases (нa´ бeрeг → нa бe´рeг, on to the bank). The NE dialects are more conservative in stress. In the field of stress S practice has affected the evolution of the standard language more than N practice.

vocabulary

A dialect may have a word different from the standard word to denote a certain phenomenon or action, e.g. (standard forms in brackets):

бирю´к (волк, wolf ); some S dialects

бурa´к (свёклa, beetroot ); some S dialects

вёдро (хоро´шaя пого´дa, fine weather)

до´брe (хорошо´, well); some S dialects

дю´жe (о´чeнь, very much, awfully); also R1

ко´чeт (пeту´х, cock(erel)); some S dialects

мурa´шкa (мурaвe´й, ant); some SW dialects

нaзём/позём (нaво´з, manure); some N dialects

орa´ть (пaхa´ть, to plough); some N and WC dialects

Regional words may be used in particular to denote age-old features of rural life such as paths, fences, outhouses, animal sheds, vegetables, parts of a plough or certain implements and utensils.

r A word which in the standard language or in some regions has one

meaning may in certain other regions have another meaning or an

additional meaning, e.g. жи´то ( corn) may mean rye in SW dialects and barley in NW dialects; пaхa´ть ( to plough) may in N dialects also mean to sweep; пого´дa ( weather in the standard language) may mean bad weather in some N dialects and good weather in some S dialects.

r Special words may be used in particular dialects to denote phenomena, especially flora, fauna, topography, climate, clothing or architecture, which are peculiar to the region in question, e.g. лa´хтa, a bay or inlet in NW Russia; рёлкa, raised ground in swampy district, islet in river in Siberia; обe´дник, a type of sea wind; понёвa, a homespun skirt in S

Russia; хa´тa, a peasant hut in S Russia.

morphology

Treatment of many nouns in -o that in the standard language are

neuter, especially nouns with stress on the stem (e.g. дe´ло, сe´но, стa´до), as feminine, e.g. плохa´я дe´лa (плохоé дe´ло, a bad business) (some S and C dialects). This phenomenon is a logical consequence of a´кaньe, since the unstressed final o is heard as a.

r Declension of the nouns мaть, mother, and дочь, daughter, that differs from the standard declension, e.g. nom sg мa´ти, aсс sg мa´тeрь (some 23

Varieties of language and register

N dialects). In some W dialects the nouns мa´ткa and до´чкa replace

мaть and дочь respectively.

r Use of the flexion -e for the genitive singular of nouns in -a after prepositions, e.g. бeз роднe´ (бeз родни´, without relations); от жeнe´ (от

жeны´, from [one’s] wife); у сeстрe´ (у сeстры´, at [one’s] sister’s).

r Occurrence of fewer nouns than in the standard language with

nominative plural form in -a´, e.g. глa´зы (глaзa´, eyes); до´мы (домa´, houses); лу´ги (лугa´, meadows) (some N, W and SW dialects); or, conversely, of more nouns with this nominative plural form than in the standard language, e.g. дeрeвня´ (дeрe´вни, villages); лошaдя´ (ло´шaди, horses).

r Extension of the genitive plural ending -ов to neuter and even

feminine nouns, e.g. дeло´в (дeл), мeсто´в (мeст), бa´бов (бaб), я´годов

(я´год) (many S dialects).

r Various deviations from standard flexions in dative, instrumental and prepositional plural forms, such as: coincidence of dative and

instrumental plural forms, e.g. c рукa´м (с рукa´ми, with hands), c нaм

(c нa´ми, with us) (many N dialects); use of dative and prepositional forms of the type гостём, гостёх; лошaдём, лошaдёх (some S

dialects); use of instrumental plural endings such as -a´мы,-a´мa, e.g.

рукa´мы, рукa´мa (рукa´ми, hands).

r Use of accusative/genitive pronominal forms мeнe´, тeбe´, сeбe´

(S dialects).

r Use of soft t in third-person-singular forms, e.g. id о´t (идёт) (some S

and C dialects).

r Various paradigms of мочь, e.g. могу´, мо´гeшь, etc.; могу´, могёшь, etc.; мо´жу, мо´жeшь, etc. (some S dialects).

r Use of first-person-singular forms of second-conjugation verbs

without epenthetic л or consonant change, e.g. любю´ (люблю´), ходю´

(хожу´) (some S and SW dialects).

syntax

r Use of certain compound prepositions of the type по-нaд, по-под,

which are not found in the standard language (used with instrumental to indicate the site of action), e.g. по-под горо´й, under the hillside; по-нaд рe´чкой, over the river (some N and S dialects).

r Use of certain prepositions with a case different from the case they govern in the standard language, e.g. во´злe, ми´мо, по´длe + acc (cf.

genitive in the standard language), e.g. во´злe рeку´ (во´злe рeки´, near the river) (some N dialects).

r Use of c + gen in sense of out of (cf. из in the standard language), e.g.

вы´йти с ко´мнaты, to go out of the room; приe´хaть с Mосквы´, to come from Moscow.

r Use of nominative rather than distinctive accusative (or accusative/

genitive) form of a noun which is the direct object of a transitive verb, 24

1.6

Current debate about standard Russian

e.g. принeсти´ водa´ (принeсти´ во´ду, to bring water); кaчa´ть рeбёнок

(кaчa´ть рeбёнкa, to rock a baby) (some N dialects).

r Use of зa + acc after short comparative adjectives (cf. genitive in the standard language), e.g. Oн стa´ршe зa Ca´шу (Oн стa´ршe Ca´ши, He’s older than Sasha) (some S dialects).

r Use of a pluperfect tense consisting of the past tense of быть + the past tense of the verb denoting the action in question, e.g. A в сeптябрe´

снeг был вы´сыпaл, a октя´брь был тёплый, Snow had fallen in

September, but October was warm (some N dialects).

r Predicative use of perfective gerunds, e.g. дe´рeво упa´вши, A tree is down; Ka´шa пригорe´вши, The porridge is burnt (some NW dialects; note, however, that the form вы´пивши, drunk, is used in this way in the standard language).

r Various impersonal constructions involving the use of a short form of a past passive participle, e.g. Cвои´ми рукa´ми нaпи´лeно, I sawed it up with my own hands (lit with my own hands it has been sawn); Mно´го бы´ло

рaбо´тaно, A lot of work has been done; Cи´жeно бы´ло у мeня´, I’ve been sitting around/People have been sitting around at my place; or use of a past passive participle that does not agree with the noun to which it relates, e.g. Oди´н солдa´т похоро´нeно здeсь, One soldier is buried here; Mолоко´

проли´т, Some milk has been spilt.

r Less differentiation than in the standard language of subordinating conjunctions (which in any case occur less in R1 than in R2 and

especially R3; see 11.12.2); correspondingly broader use of certain conjunctions, especially: что in causal sense, e.g. Oн хохо´чeт нaд

нa´ми, что глу´пы дaк, He’s laughing at us for being so stupid; and кaк in (a) conditional sense (=e´сли, if ), e.g. Кaк ти´хо – поe´ду, a вe´тeр –

дaк ни зa что, If it’s calm I’ll go, but if it’s windy I certainly shan’t; (b) causal sense (=потому´ что, because), e.g. Beдь я´-то нe нaпишу´, кaк я нeгрa´мотнa, I shan’t write myself, because I can’t write; (c) temporal sense (=когдa´, when), e.g. Кaк жa´рко бы´ло, дaк ко´шки в трaву´

ложи´лись, When it was hot the cats would lie down in the grass.

r Use of the emphatic post-positive particle -то (see 5.4 on use of this particle in the standard language). In some dialects (esp N and E) the article changes according to the gender and number of the noun, i.e.

сто´л-от, кры´шa-тa, окно´-то, столы´-тe. In some C dialects the forms

-ту and -ти оr -ты may be used for the sake of harmony with the

ending of the noun to which the particle is attached e.g. нa бeрeгу´-ту, бeз со´ли-ти.

1.6

Current debate about standard Russian

We return at this point to the notion of a linguistic standard that was broached in section 1.2 above. By linguistic standard we mean a 25

Varieties of language and register

canonical form of a language which grammarians and lexicographers

have sought to codify and which certain works of literature are felt to exemplify. In some countries it is the function of some institution (e.g.

the Académie franc¸aise in France) to preserve this standard. (In Russia this function is fulfilled by the V. V. Vinográdov Russian Language

Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Linguistics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the A. S. P úshkin Russian

Language Institute, and other institutions.) It will be clear from what was said in 1.2 that the standard is not only the uniform language that educated speakers are believed actually to use but also an exemplary language that it is felt speakers of the language in general ought to aspire to use. In other words, the term ‘standard’ when applied to a language has both a descriptive and a prescriptive sense.

This book is primarily descriptive. We aim to acquaint students with contemporary Russian usage (its registers and functional styles, lexis, morphology, syntax and stress) as we find it rather than to exhort

students to adhere exclusively to usage that a purist might consider as conforming to an educated standard. We therefore have no hesitation

in pointing out non-standard features of contemporary Russian. This

leaning towards descriptivism rather than prescriptivism, which is in the spirit of the series to which this book belongs, is intended to help the foreign student to become aware of the full stylistic and expressive range that is available to the Russian native speaker. Evidence of such awareness may raise the foreign learner’s authority in the eyes of native speakers.

At the same time it is essential that a foreigner learning a language should know what native speakers consider to be standard (the norm at which they will probably feel foreigners should aim) and what they

consider sub-standard (and may therefore expect the foreign learner to eschew). In particular, the foreign learner should understand that the freedom that he or she enjoys to use the resources of the language

being acquired, especially its sub-standard forms, is on the whole more limited than that enjoyed by native speakers. This statement is true as a matter of fact, inasmuch as there will no doubt be lacunae in

knowledge of vocabulary, idiom and grammar that inhibit the foreign

user of a language. It also holds good with respect to etiquette. For the relatively limited nature of the foreigner’s understanding of the cultural contexts in which the foreign language is used is likely to be felt at some level by native speakers to impose a duty on the foreigner to

observe a certain humility and linguistic restraint. The disapproval of native speakers may easily be aroused by deployment of sub-standard

forms by the foreign learner in an inappropriate context.

Debates about what the standard form of a language is or should be

and about the desirability and feasibility of preserving, purifying or reforming the language are commonplace among peoples whose

languages are widely used for political, commercial, administrative, literary and other purposes as well as for everyday social intercourse.

With respect to the English language, for example, there has in recent 26

1.6

Current debate about standard Russian

years been much discussion about such questions as the following. Is standard spoken English the same thing as standard written English?

(It is widely thought by socio-linguists not to be.) Is there such a thing as standard spoken English at all? Is it right to attempt to impose a standard spoken form of English, including received pronunciation,

through the educational system? What are the social implications of

such a policy? What political assumptions lie behind the positions

taken up on such issues? Such debates are often fuelled by concern that what is thought to be a standard form of language is being polluted by the increasing toleration of non-standard pronunciation (e.g. the

pronunciation that characterises what is known as estuary English), or by the influx into a language of lexis that is perceived by educated users as coarse or vulgar, or by the establishment of grammatical

phenomena that are considered by such users to be incorrect.

A debate about the state of the Russian standard began in the late

1980s and has quickened in the 1990s and the early years of the

twenty-first century. This debate needs to be seen against the

background of the political, economic, social and cultural changes

(прeобрaзовa´ния) that have affected the Russian language in the

post-Soviet period. For example, Russians now have much closer

contact with the West, as a result of increased opportunities for travel abroad, the influx of a larger number of foreigners into Russia than in the Soviet period, and easier access to Western culture, particularly material and popular culture, through the media and the internet. The one-party state of Soviet times has given way to a state with democratic institutions in which political parties of various complexions compete with one another. A free-market economy is developing. Mass media,

including new and independent television stations and newspapers,

have proliferated. Women have asserted themselves to a greater extent than before. The Soviet cultural legacy is receding.

The effect of these changes on the Russian language, especially in

the areas of lexis and style, may be viewed in different ways. On the one hand they may be seen positively as having enriched Russian with numerous neologisms expressing new concepts or presenting old

concepts in a new light (see 5.1 below). They have also helped to release the language from the ideological straitjacket of the Soviet era.

It is perhaps indicative of a recognition of the positive effect, or at least the naturalness and legitimacy, of linguistic change that Russian

linguists have in recent years become more interested than they were in Soviet times in usage in non-standard registers.

On the other hand the post-Soviet Russian language is widely

perceived, particularly by educated speakers brought up in the Soviet period, as having undergone ‘barbarisation’ (вaрвaризa´ция). It has

come to be seen as a vehicle for mass culture. It has received numerous loanwords (зaи´мствовaния) of international currency. (Resistance to what linguistic conservatives perceive as inundation with foreign words was exemplified as early as 1995 by Solzhen´ıtsyn’s Pу´сский словa´рь

языково´го рaсширe´ния ( A Russian Dictionary of Linguistic Expansion).) 27

Varieties of language and register

Numerous slang words (жaргони´змы) have come into common use,

many of them associated with youth culture (and often disseminated

through rock music) and others originating in the underworld. The

complaint is heard that whereas once people were encouraged to write or speak in a way that was comprehensible to the masses (что´бы бы´ло

поня´тно мa´ссaм) now the demand is that they write or speak in a way that is entertaining to the masses (что´бы бы´ло зaня´тно мa´ссaм). Thus the linguistic standard has been broadened and the average level of

speech in public contexts lowered. The point is not that mistakes were not made before, of course, for languages are always used loosely by many speakers. Rather it is that lax usage in Russian is now widely

disseminated in the mass media (CMи, i.e. срe´дствa мa´ссовой

информa´ции), television serials (тeлeсeриa´лы), talk shows (ток-шо´у), films, advertising (рeклa´мa), contemporary fiction and the public

speech of officials and politicians (whose parliamentary debates are broadcast).

We should add to these complaints the fact that there often occurs

what might be described as a sort of linguistic inflation. Certain words lose their original worth, because a meaning comes to be attached to them that is more trivial than their original meaning or simply because they are overused. The process applies even to vulgar language (see

5.6) when it becomes habitual. The lexical currency is thus devalued.

In response to the perceived debasement of the standard Russian

language, or литeрaту´рный язы´к, commentators now routinely discuss the ‘ecology’ of the language (лингвоэколо´гия), expressing concern

about the phenomena that have come to be tolerated in public

discourse and lamenting the alleged impoverishment of the language.

For example, the authors of two recent articles in the paper

литeрaту´рнaя гaзe´тa (Ivanóva and Khlebtsóva; see Sources)

complain about departures from the standard in the areas of

pronunciation, enunciation, stress, morphology, syntax, lexis and style that they have observed in the media, even in broadcasts that are not live and in which editors might therefore have been expected to ensure a higher linguistic standard. They criticise correspondents and

presenters for halting and stumbling delivery, for speaking inaudibly and with unclear diction, for speaking too quickly and omitting

syllables from words, and for pronouncing words in a colloquial or

demotic way. They disapprove of the appearance on central television and radio channels of presenters who have a regional accent. (This

practice has long since been accepted in British broadcasting; in some respects Russian purists are reacting to the shock of what to them is novel.) They point to examples of non-standard stress, e.g. взя´тa,

вклю´чaт, гaзопро´вод, новоро´ждeнный, облe´гчить instead of взятa´, taken, включa´т, they will include, гaзопрово´д, gas pipeline, новорождённый, new-born, облeгчи´ть, to facilitate, respectively.

In the field of grammar, one area of particular concern to such

purists is the incorrect or innovative combination of nouns and

prepositions, e.g. нa прaви´тeльствe, в Укрaи´нe, instead of в

1.6

Current debate about standard Russian

прaви´тeльствe, in the government, нa Укрaи´нe, in (the) Ukraine (see note 1 on нa in 10.1.6(c)). Another is the widespread incorrect declension of numerals, e.g. о двухсо´т, instead of о двухстa´х, about 200; к двухтысячeпe´рвому году instead of к двe ты´сячи пe´рвому

го´ду, by 2001; and двух ты´сячa трe´тий год, instead of двe ты´сячи

трe´тий год, 2003. Khlebts óva points to the use of double subjects (a colloquial phenomenon sometimes known in English as ‘heads’),

e.g. сeго´дняшняя тe´мa, онa´ кaсaéтся интeрe´сной проблe´мы, today’s subject, it concerns an interesting problem. More pedantically, perhaps, Ivan óva notes that certain nouns are inflected that should not be, such as the names of settlements (посёлки) and large Cossack villages

(стaни´цы). Conversely, other proper nouns, such as the names of cities and villages, are not inflected when they are in apposition, although strictly speaking they should be, e.g. в го´родe Hовосиби´рск and в

го´родe Бa´срa, instead of в го´родe Hовосиби´рскe, in the city of Novosibirsk, and в го´родe Бa´срe, in the city of Basra, respectively.

As far as lexis is concerned, Ivan óva and Khlebts óva lament the

inundation of the language of the media with foreign, especially

English, vocabulary (see 5.1.2 below), slang (5.1.4) and professional jargon, especially computing terminology (5.1.5). Furthermore they bemoan the allegedly limited vocabulary of people who work in the

media and their consequent underemployment of synonyms and their

failure to distinguish between registers. They also complain of the

assignation of new meanings to words. For example, the verb

ощущa´ть, to feel, Khlebts óva believes, now does service for ду´мaть, полaгa´ть, понимa´ть and считa´ть ( to think, suppose, understand and consider, respectively), as in the question she has heard put to someone on television: Кaк вы ощущaéтe, бу´дeт ли Aмe´рикa рaтифици´ровaть

догово´ры о рaзоружe´нии? ( How do you feel/What do you think, will America ratify the disarmament treaties? ). (In this modish use ощущa´ть

may be an anglicism.) Similarly the verb озву´чивaть/озву´чить has

gained currency as a synonym for вырaжa´ть/вы´рaзить мнe´ниe,

произноси´ть/произнeстиánd скaзa´ть ( to express an opinion, utter and say, respectively). At the same time the volume of words that belong to a relatively high stratum of Russian lexis, Ivan óva believes, has

diminished.

On the stylistic level Ivan óva criticises pleonasm (e.g. бы´вший

экс-прeмьe´р, the former ex-premier, and мировa´я глобaлизa´ция, world globalisation) and presenters’ continuing recourse to official clichés (e.g.

в нaстоя´щий момe´нт, at the present moment; прeдприня´ть мe´ры, to undertake measures (an embellishment of the official phrase приня´ть

мe´ры, to take measures). Both authors deplore the ubiquitous use of the vague fillers кaк бы and ти´пa, sort of/like, e.g. ти´пa сдa´ли в aрe´нду, they sort of rented it out; кaк бы рeформи´руeм систe´му обрaзовa´ния, we’re like reforming the education system; кaк бы рок-гру´ппa, ‘ like, a rock group’. Indeed it has become possible to talk of кaкбыи´зм as a phenomenon emblematic of the debasement of which defenders of the

standard complain.

Varieties of language and register

Those who deploy the language in advertising are held by

Khlebts óva to be particularly culpable, on the grounds that they

promote the use of absurd epithets (сa´мaя огнeопa´снaя комe´дия, the most inflammable comedy; супeрды´шaщиe подгу´зники, superbreathable nappies), inflated exclamations (Попро´буй удово´льствиe нa вкус!, Try the taste of pleasure! ), and youth slang (Oттяни´сь со вку´сом! or Oторви´сь по по´лной! Have a good time! Have fun! ). It is a further source of concern to such commentators that words that were

formerly taboo, i.e. words denoting sexual organs or describing bodily functions, have become commonplace in the language of light

broadcasting and journalism and popular entertainment. They also

complain that an anglicised, or rather americanised, less respectful, more aggressive manner of addressing the listener, viewer or reader is often adopted. This alien manner may extend to use of a rising

intonation at the end of an utterance in place of the falling intonation that is characteristic of statements (as opposed to questions) in Russian.

The purists recommend various means of combating the poor

linguistic usage of which they complain. (These means might seem to

Westerners more or less impracticable and unlikely to produce the

results that the purists desire; in fact the purists, like all conservatives in times of rapid change, run the risk of appearing jaundiced and

outmoded.) They argue, for example, that Olympiads and other

competitions should be organised and given publicity, and that prizes should be awarded for success in them, in order that kudos might be

attached to those who demonstrate command of the language. In

addition Ivan óva proposes the following measures: that the linguistic competence of people applying for jobs in which they will use the

language in a professional capacity be tested; that advertising be

scrutinised with a view to eliminating orthographic and logical errors and the use of an aggressive tone; that the language of sections of the media be permanently monitored and that linguists be invited regularly to analyse and comment on the results of this monitoring; that the use of vulgar language, slang, demotic vocabulary or low borrowings from other languages be somehow prohibited in public discourse; and even

that editors be fined for poor linguistic usage in the media that they manage.

It is important, finally, to emphasise that although the Russian

language has recently changed in significant ways that are examined in this book under such headings as the language of the internet (1.3.6)

and neologisms (5.1) it has not undergone fundamental grammatical or for that matter lexical change as a result of the political, economic, social and cultural transformation of Russia in the post-Soviet period.

The most important change to which we draw attention here is of a

socio-linguistic nature. It is that registers that were once seen as relatively formal, such as the registers of political discourse,

broadcasting and journalism on current affairs, have been invaded by the habits and phenomena of colloquial and demotic speech. It is

primarily to this redefinition of the boundaries within which varieties 30

1.6

Current debate about standard Russian

of language are used that those concerned with the ‘ecology’ of the

language seem to be objecting, although of course they also fear that unless the norms they advocate are disseminated they will in time be altogether forgotten.

Notes

1. The population has decreased slightly, by almost two million, since 1989, when the last Soviet census was carried out. Nevertheless the Russian Federation is the seventh most populous country in the world, after China, India, the US, Indonesia, Brazil and Pakistan. The census also reveals that: almost three-quarters of the population live in towns (although the process of urbanisation has ceased); women are in the majority; the average age of the population is increasing; the literacy rate (which in any case was very high in Soviet times) has increased; and the birth rate is declining.

2. Many other languages besides Russian and the minority languages already mentioned above are spoken by the numerous ethnic minorities in Russia itself, especially various Finno-Ugric languages (e.g. Karelian, Komi, Mari, Mordvin, Udmurt), Caucasian languages (Abkhaz, Georgian, Ingush,

Lezgi), Turkic languages (Iakut, Kirgiz, Turkmen), languages of the

Mongolian group (Buriat, Kalmyk), and Tadzhik (a language of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European family).

3. It should be noted that some linguists use the term ‘style’ to designate ‘a variety of language viewed from the point of view of formality’ and the term ‘register’ to designate ‘a variety of language determined by topic, subject matter or activity, such as the register of mathematics, the register of medicine, or the register of pigeon fancying’ (Trudgill in Bex and Watts).

2 Passages illustrating register

All the passages presented below have been edited. Three dots

(многото´чиe; see 11.15 below) may indicate either a pause in the original text or our own omission of a passage from it.

2.1

R1: from a TV show

The following passage is an excerpt from a popular TV show in which

people are confronted, in the presence of a studio audience, by

members of their family, partners, friends or enemies about problems in their lives. The context of this excerpt is that a young man (Anton) takes a young woman whom he wants to marry to meet his parents in

a provincial town outside Moscow. However, he has to leave her on

her own with his parents because he is called back to Moscow by his

employer. When he returns a week later he finds that his parents and his girl-friend (Marina) are not talking to one another. When Anton

and Marina get back to Moscow Marina tells Anton she is breaking off their relationship. Anton tells the presenter that he has tried to find out from his mother (Ella Georgievna) what has gone wrong.

Aнто´н: Я спрa´шивaю у мa´мы. Ma´мa чeго´-то нeпоня´тноe мнe

отвeчaéт, никa´к то´лком нe мо´жeт скaзa´ть.

Beду´щий: A дaвa´йтe спро´сим дeйстви´тeльно у мa´мы. Ba´шa мa´мa

– Э

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa. (Bхо´дит Э´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa) здрa´вствуйтe,

присa´живaйтeсь, пожa´луйстa. (Aнто´ну) Cпроси´ у мa´мы.

Aнто´н: Ma´мa, вот объясни´ мнe нaконe´ц, что произошло´.

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: дa, я слы´шaлa . . . всё. знaéшь что, вот и хорошо´, что онa´ уe´хaлa. Xорошо´, что онa´ уe´хaлa. Я пря´мо ужeé´лe

выдe´рживaю всё э´то. Teбe´ тaкa´я жeнa´ нe нужнa´ совeршe´нно.

Beду´щий и Aнто´н (вмe´стe): Почeму´?

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Почeму´, он спрa´шивaeт почeму´? дa потому´, что

онa´ совeршe´нно ничeго´ нe умeéт дe´лaть. Э

´то кaкa´я-то хa´мкa.

Oнa´ побылa´ у нaс нe´сколько днeй, и бо´льшe мнe вообщe´ ничeго´

нe нa´до от нeё, ни eё.

Aнто´н: Teбe´ любу´ю дe´вушку привeди´, тeбe´ любa´я нe понрa´вится.

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Bот когдa´ бу´дeт любa´я, вот когдa´ бу´дeт другa´я, тогдa´ и поговори´м, a вот с э´той . . .

Beду´щий: A с э´той-то что? Tо, что онa´ ничeго´ нe умeéт дe´лaть, э´то

жe придёт . . .

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: дa онa´ вообщe´ кaкa´я-то . . . (сигнa´л зaглушaéт

сло´во: зaсрa´нкa?). A со мной вообщe´ сплошнa´я гру´бость.

Beду´щий: что знa´чит . . . ? B прямо´м смы´слe сло´вa?

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: дa, в прямо´м смы´слe.

Beду´щий: Taк э´то нa´до лeчи´ть.

2.1

R1: from a TV show

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Hу, вот и лeчи´тe eё. Bот пусть . . . и лeчи´тe eё.

Aнто´н: Oнa´ мнe нрa´вится, я люблюéё. Mнe´ всё рaвно´, что ты

говори´шь.

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Кaк э´то всё рaвно´? Mнe всeгдa´ виднeé, кaк ты нe понимaéшь, что я eди´нствeнный чeловe´к, кото´рый хо´чeт тeбe´

добрa´. Покaéщё.

Aнто´н: Oнa´ всeго´ нeдe´лю побылa´, кaк ты моглa´ что´-то узнa´ть?

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Oнa´ всeго´ нeдe´лю побылa´, и мнe хвaти´ло вот

тaк (дe´лaeт жeст руко´й нaд голово´й). E´лe дождaлa´сь, e´лe

дождaлa´сь.

Beду´щий: чудeсa´ . . . и мы e´лe дождaли´сь. (Bхо´дит Maри´нa) здрa´вствуйтe, Maри´ночкa. Bы нaвe´рно дожи´ли до сто´льких лeт

и нe знa´ли, что Bы . . .

Maри´нa: Cпaси´бо.

Beду´щий: A почeму´ тaк мa´мa говори´т? Попро´буйтe нaм объясни´ть.

Hу, что ж тaкоé-то?

Maри´нa: Я нe хотe´лa сюдa´ приходи´ть. Meня´ сюдa´ про´сто притaщи´ли.

(Aнто´ну) Taк что я хотe´лa тeбe´ скaзa´ть, что у тeбя´ мa´мa

про´сто нeнормa´льнaя жe´нщинa. Bи´димо, по кaки´м-то дрe´вним

трaди´циям мa´мa рeши´лa провe´рить мeня´ нa дe´вствeнность. Tо´

eсть жeнaéё сы´нa должнa´ быть нeви´нной . . .

Beду´щий: дe´вочкой . . .

Maри´нa: дa, про´сто, понимaéшь, кaк бы мeня´ это о´чeнь унижaéт . . .

Понимaéшь, я всeгдa´ бeрeглa´ сeбя´ для тeбя´, вот, a тут вдруг

про´сто . . .

Aнто´н: Я нe понимa´ю.

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Aнто´н, я eди´нствeнноe, что попроси´лa: ‘Maри´нa, у мeня´ тут eсть о´чeнь хоро´ший знaко´мый врaч, дaвa´й

потихо´нeчку, тaм э´то, зaйдём к нeму´, всё бу´дeт прeкрa´сно,

жe´нщинa,

посмо´трит

тeбя´,

бу´ду

знaть,

что

ты

дeйстви´тeльно . . . ’

Maри´нa: Hу, для чeго´ э´то ну´жно, для чeго´? Beдь вaш сын мнe

довeряéт.

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Hу вот, когдa´ у тeбя´ бу´дeт твой сын, и ты бу´дeшь

тогдa´ по´лностью довeря´ть . . . про´сто тaк, словa´м.

Aнто´н: зaчe´м . . .

Maри´нa: дa, я ду´мaю, что кaк бы мы в своe´й жи´зни с ним сa´ми

рaзбeрёмся.

Aнто´н (мa´тeри): зaчe´м ты э´то дe´лaeшь? зaчe´м ты в мою´ жизнь

вмe´шивaeшься?

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Я то´жe коé-что уви´дeлa . . . (Maри´нe) и ты знaéшь, что я хочу´ тeбe´ скaзa´ть . . . E´сли ты тaкa´я чe´стнaя, чeго´ ты

бои´шься тогдa´, взять пойти´ и провe´риться? чeго´ ты бои´шься?

Maри´нa: Я нe бою´сь, про´сто хочу´ вaм скaзa´ть, что ну´жно довeря´ть

нeмно´го.

´ллa Гeо´ргиeвнa: Я тeбe´ совeршe´нно нe довeря´ю.

From the television programme ‘O´кнa’ compèred

by Dmitrii Nagiev, broadcast on NTV in February 2004

Anton: I ask mum. Mum gives me some answer I don’t understand, she just won’t give me a straight answer.

Passages illustrating register

Presenter: Well let’s ask mum herself. Your mum – Ella Georgievna. [Ella Georgievna appears.] Hello, take a seat please. [To Anton] Ask your mum.

Anton: Mum, will you explain to me now what happened.

Ella Georgievna: Yes, I’ve heard . . . everything. You know what, it’s a good thing that she’s gone. It’s a good thing that she’s gone. I’ve hardly been able to bear all this. You really don’t need a woman like that.

Presenter and Anton [together]: Why’s that?

Ella Georgievna: Why, he asks why. Well because she can’t do a thing. She’s a cow. She was with us for several days and I just don’t want anything else to do with her, I don’t want her.

Anton: Any girl I brought home you wouldn’t like.

Ella Georgievna: When there’s another one, when there’s another we’ll talk about it, but as for this one . . .

Presenter: Well what about this one? The fact that she can’t do a thing, it might change . . .

Ella Georgievna: Well she’s just a . . . [a bleep muffles the word: possibly ‘shit’].

And she was just totally rude to me.

Presenter: What do you mean, a . . . ? In the literal sense of the word?

Ella Georgievna: Yes, in the literal sense of the word.

Presenter: Then she needs to be treated for it.

Ella Georgievna: Well, treat her for it then. Let her . . . get treated for it.

Anton: I like her, I love her. I don’t care what you say.

Ella Georgievna: What do you mean you don’t care? I know better than you, you don’t understand that I’m the only person who wishes you well. For the time being.

Anton: She was with you for just a week, how could you find anything out?

Ella Georgievna: She was with us for just a week, and that was enough for me

[makes a gesture over her head]. I could hardly wait, I could hardly wait.

Presenter: Amazing . . . And we can hardly wait either. [Marina appears.] Hello Marina. You’ve obviously lived all these years without knowing you were a . . .

Marina: Thank you.

Presenter: And why’s mum saying that? Try and explain it to us. So what’s it all about then?

Marina: I didn’t want to come here. I’ve just been dragged here. [To Anton]

Anyway, I wanted to tell you that your mum’s just not a normal woman.

Obviously your mum decided to go along with some ancient tradition and check up on my virginity. That’s to say her son’s wife had to be an innocent . . .

Presenter: Little girl . . .

Marina: Yes, so you see, like, how much that degrades me . . . Do you understand, I was saving myself all the time for you, that’s what, and then all of a sudden I get this . . .

Anton: I don’t understand.

Ella Georgievna: Anton, the only thing I asked of her was: ‘Marina, I’ve got a very good friend here who’s a doctor, let’s pop round there on the quiet, well, let’s go and see the doctor, it’ll be all right, it’s a woman and she’ll have a look at you and I’ll know that you really are . . . ’

Marina: What’s that necessary for, what for? After all, your son trusts me.

Ella Georgievna: Well, when you have a son of your own you’ll completely trust . . . just words.

2.1

R1: from a TV show

Anton: Why . . .

Marina: Yes, I think that we’ll, like, sort out our own lives for ourselves.

Anton [to his mother]: Why are you doing this? Why are you interfering in my life?

Ella Georgievna: I’ve seen a thing or two myself . . . [To Marina] And you know what I want to say to you . . . If you’re such a good girl, then what have you got to be afraid of, why don’t you just go and get checked? What are you afraid of ?

Marina: I’m not afraid of anything, I just want to tell you that you’ve got to trust people a bit.

Ella Georgievna: I don’t trust you at all.

The television programme from which the excerpt is taken follows the format of Western talk shows such as ITV’s Trisha and is therefore symptomatic of the influx of Western popular culture into Russia.

Linguistically the excerpt illustrates the colloquial register that

people use for discussion, or argument, about highly personal matters.

Utterances are frequently incomplete or incoherent and people may

repeat themselves, e.g. хорош ó, что онa´ уe´хaлa (8), Почeму´, он

спрa´шивaeт почeму´ (11). The colloquial features of the passage

include the following.

modes of address

Use of the familiar second-person-singular personal pronoun ты

(26, 28, 31), second-person-singular verb forms, e.g. знaéшь (7, 65), понимaéшь (47), дe´лaeшь (63), вмe´шивaeшься (64), and

second-person-singular imperative forms, e.g. объясни´ (6). The

familiar forms of address are not confined to people who know each

other well (i.e. Ella Georgievna and her son, Anton, and Anton and his girl-friend, Marina). Ella Georgievna also addresses Marina in this way (and in this case the familiar form has a tone of condescension or

contempt). The presenter too at one point uses the familiar

second-person-singular imperative form Cпроси´ when addressing

Anton (5), thus entering into the intimate spirit of the exchanges.

vocabulary

Words such as сплошнa´я (21), the derogatory хa´мкa (12).

r Diminutive or familiar forms: потихо´нeчку (53) and Maри´ночкa (36), a diminutive form of Maри´нa (used by the presenter).

r Repeated use by all three participants of the word вот, which occurs in the expression вот тaк (32–3), or which may serve as a filler (6, 7, 17, 25, 48, 58). In one utterance by Ella Georgievna this word occurs three times (16–17). Other fillers are used too: вообщe´ (which is a favourite of Ella Georgievna’s: 13, 20, 21), and про´сто (41, 49) and кaк бы (47, 61), both of which are characteristic of Marina’s speech.

r Use of modal particles, e.g. the post-positive particle -то (18), ж(e) (19, 40) and ну (40, 56, 58).

syntax

r Turns of phrase such as Hу, что ж тaкоé-то (40), a тут вдруг про´сто

(48-9), тaм это (53), and про´сто тaк (59).

Passages illustrating register

r Use of a clause with the second-person-singular imperative form in a conditional or concessive sense: любу´ю дe´вушку привeди´ (15), if you

[one] were to bring any girl or whatever girl you [one] might bring.

r Use of the verb взять to suggest sudden action (67).

2.2

R1: based on a conversation in a Russian

internet chatroom

здрa´вствуйтe, до´брыe мои´ знaко´мыe. C но´вым Го´дом!

B to A:

A нeзнaко´мыe?

C to D:

тaк во´т e´сли нe сeкрe´т, кро´мe того´, что вы обитaéтe нa нeбeсa´х, гдe вa´шa зeмe´льнaя дислокa´ция!!

E to F:

э´то я ужe´ ви´дeлa, ну и кaк ты ду´мaeшь удовлeтвори´ть?

F to E:

я нe знa´ю твои´х зaпро´сов:)))

G to F:

глa´вноe отли´чиe компью´тeрa от мозо´в зaключaéтся в том, что им

по´льзуются

H to I:

и что дa´льшe?

I to H:

тaкси´ проeзжaéт ми´мо, торможуéго´, a он мнe ти´пa до го´родa

сто´льник, a минe´ дee´нeх тaк жa´лкa и вaщe´ тaкa´я крaси´вaя, a он –

сто´льник, грю 30 то´кa и улыбa´юсь во всe 32 зу´бa

и нeзнaко´мыe, хотя´ тaки´х прaкти´чeски нeт, здрa´сти

C to E:

брa´во!! a что вы eщё ви´дeли! a лу´чшe скaжи´тe что вы покa´зивaли!!!

I to A:

здрa´сти

D to C:

ну во-пe´рвых, нa ты:) a во-вторы´х, моя зaмeчa´тeльнaя, кaк ты

зaмe´тил, дислaкa´ция, в г. К.

A to I:

C прa´здником, рa´дость моя´!

F to G:

смe´лaя мысль, нa ли´чном о´пытe осно´вaнa?

E to C:

вы о чём?

A to B:

ты Haтa´шa?

C to E:

ну с кeм ты тaм говори´шь о том, что ты ви´дeлa!!

B to A:

дa . . . A вы . . . ?

B to A again:

Пaрдо´н . . . ты

H to I:

He томи´ ду´шу! Paсскa´зывaй!

E to C:

ни скeм я однaÍ to H:

привёз он мeня´ и тeлeфо´нчик остaвляéт, грит, нaзa´д поe´дитe,

вызывa´йтe и лы´бится

A to B:

спaси´бо, конe´чно

G to F:

ты смeёшься нaд прaвдой

C to D:

ну вот нaконe´цто убирaéм грaни´цы будм то´лько нa ты!! a о г. К.

ничeго´ нe слыхa´л!!

F to G:

нeт, прa´вду я люблю´:))

C to E:

a сeйчa´с рaсплa´чусь, тaкa´я ми´лaя, нe´жнaя мa´лeнькaя и однa´!! могу´ я

скрa´сить твоё одино´чeство!

D to C:

о´чeнь зря . . . нaш го´род присво´ил сeбe´ стa´тус го´родa нeвe´ст . . . в и.

они´ пeрeвeли´сь, a у нaс нaоборо´т:))

I to H:

дa ничeго´ тaко´го, про´сто кодa´ я ужe´ у´тро стоя´лa нa

остaно´вкe и мёрзлa опять жe, a мaршру´тки eщё нe ходи´ли, опя´ть э´тот

пa´рeнь подкa´тывaeт

H to I:

и всё?!?!

E to C:

я нe однa´ я с охрa´ной

G to B:

винзи´п плохо´й попa´лся, хотe´л тaкси´ вы´звaть, прислa´ли дe´вушку

2.2

R1: internet chatroom conversation

B to A:

Eсть eщё вaриa´нт, о кото´ром спрa´шивaют: побe´дa))))

C to D:

вa´у, вa´у!! скро´мно! и вопро´с в спи´ну! – ты зa´мужeм!?

A to B:

сeйчa´с нe нa´до, лу´чшe со мной пообщa´йся

C to E:

aх, вон оно´ кaк!!! дa мы вро´дe бы и с охрa´ной мо´жeм договори´ться, и нaконe´ц уeдини´ться!!!

I to H:

мдa . . . кa´к-то нeсклa´дно рaскaзa´лa

D to C:

Cдe´лaeшь прeдложe´ниe, e´сли нeт?:)

E to C:

со мной бу´дeт труднeé договори´ться

C to D:

ну сeго´дня прa´здник, почeму´ бы и нeт, но я ду´мaю нaм сто´ило бы

нeмно´го бо´лee узнaть друг дру´гa!!

H to I:

– Hормa´льно! дaвa´й вы´пьeм зa взaимопонимa´ниe!

Hello, my good friends. Happy New Year.

B to A:

And what about strangers?

C to D:

and so if it isn’t a secret, apart from the fact that you live on another planet, where’s your base on Earth!!

E to F:

i’ve seen that already, so how do you intend to satisfy me?

F to E:

i don’t know your needs :)))

G to F:

the main difference between a computer and brans [brains] is that people use it H to I:

And what else?

I to H:

a taxi goes past, i wave him down, and he says to me like it’ll cost you a hundred to get to town but i’m so meeean with money and anyway i’m so gorgeous and he’s asking for a hundred so i say thirty and that’s it and I give him a great big smile . . .

And strangers as well, although there aren’t many of them [i.e. A claims to know almost everybody].

C to E:

bravo!! and what else have you seen! or better still tell us what you’ve showen

[shown]!!!

I to A:

D to C:

well firstly let’s be on familiar terms:)) [that is to say, on terms which in Russian make possible the use of the informal personal pronoun ты as the means of address] and secondly, my lovely, as you’ve noticed, my base is in K. [D names a provincial Russian town here].

A to I:

Happy holiday, my lovely!

F to G:

it’s a bold idea, is it based on personal experience?:)

E to C:

what are you on about?

A to B:

are you Natasha?

C to E:

so who are you talking to there about what you’ve seen!!

B to A:

Yes . . . And are you . . . ? [B uses A’s screen name here.]

B to A again:

i beg your pardon . . . [B is apologising for having used the formal pronoun вы

instead of the informal ты now that she is getting to know A.]

H to I:

Don’t keep me on tenterhooks! Tell all!

E to C:

i’m not withanyone [sic] i’m alone

I to H:

he gave me a lift and he hands me his telephone number and says when you go back you call me and he gives me a leer

A to B:

thanks, of course

G to F:

you’re laughing at the truth

C to D:

well at last we’re breaking down the barriers then and we’ll be on familiar terms all the time!! [i.e. they will address each other using the pronoun ты] and i haven’t heard a thing about K.!! [the town that D has named]

F to G:

no, i love the truth:))

[At this point A asks B about the implications of her screen name.]

Passages illustrating register

C to E:

i’m going to burst into tears, such a sweet delicate little thing and all on her own!! i’m the one who can relieve your loneliness!

[B now replies to A’s enquiry about her screen name.]

D to C:

it’s a great shame you haven’t . . . we’ve got the reputation of a town full of girls who want to get married . . . they’ve run out of them in I. [D names a neighbouring Russian town], but it’s quite the opposite here:))

I to H:

nothing special, it’s just that wen i was standing freezing at the bus stop this morning all over again, and no minibuses were running, this guy drives up again H to I:

And that’s all there is to it?!?!

E to C:

i’m not alone i’ve got a minder

G to B:

i’ve got a dud zip file, i wanted to call a taxi, they sent a girl B to A:

There’s another scenario that people ask about: conquest))))

C to D:

wow, wow!! how modest of you! and the big question! – are you married!?

A to B:

not yet, it would be better for you to get to know me

C to E:

oh, so that’s how it is!!! well we could sort of come to an agreement with the minder, and then get to be on our own!!!!

I to H:

hm . . . i didn’t put it too well

D to C:

If not, will you propose?:)

E to C:

you’ll find i’m more difficult to come to an agreement with [i.e. more difficult than the minder]

C to D:

well today’s a holiday, so why not, but i think it would be worth our while to get to know each other a bit better!!

H to I:

OK! Let’s drink to mutual understanding!

Of the participants in this conversation A, C, F, G and H are male and B, D, E and I are female (as is clear from grammatical forms used in the Russian, as well as from the content of the conversation).

The passage reflects the chaotic reality of the internet chatroom

where numerous concurrent conversations go on in public, most of

them quite independently of one another but within view of the other participants, and some of them not easily intelligible to outsiders who do not know what has been said before.

From the linguistic point of view the passage illustrates the extreme informality of speech in this medium. The participants, even those

who are apparently communicating with one another for the first time, express themselves with a greater freedom (exemplified by frequent

sexual innuendo) than would be usual among strangers if they were

suddenly brought physically together in a social situation.

The normal conventions of written language, which tends towards a

standard and is subject to editing, correction and revision, are not observed in this cybertext. Consequently usage is extremely lax. For instance, letters are omitted (thus мозо´в for мозго´в (7), будм for бу´дeм (31), кодa´ for когдa´ (38)). Words are misspelt, owing to careless keying of characters or possibly to ignorance of correct usage, e.g.

покa´зивaли (14) for покa´зывaли, поe´дитe (27) for поe´дeтe,

рaскaзa´лa (49) for рaсскaзa´лa. Words are incorrectly joined together (скeм (26) for с кeм). Punctuation is often omitted, e.g. full stops at the end of sentences, the comma or full stop required after ни с кeм (26), and the hyphen required in нaконe´ц-то (31). Incorrect punctuation

marks may be used, e.g. exclamation marks instead of a question mark 38

2.2

R1: internet chatroom conversation

(4, 14). Participants frequently insert emoticons into the text (6, 16, 33, 37, 44), that is to say they use a new form of punctuation that has developed in the language of the internet. Rules relating to the use of capitals are also broken. Thus a lower-case form is generally used for the first letter of the first word of a sentence.

We try in our translation to preserve the flavour of the original

cybertext by imitating the typing errors and lax usage of the

participants in the chatroom, omitting or misusing certain marks of

punctuation, and using lower-case letters instead of capitals where the participants themselves have done so.

Participants’ spelling of words in this text, besides containing

mistakes, sometimes also reflects pronunciation in rapid speech, e.g.

вaщe´ for вообщe´ (11), грю for говорю´ (12), то´кa for то´лько (12), здрa´сти for здрa´вствуйтe (15), грит for говори´т (27). Participant D’s spelling of the word дислокa´ция as дислaкa´ция (17) reflects the

phenomenon of a´kane (see 1.5 above) in the second syllable.

Participant I spells some words in the affected, drawn-out way in

which she claims to have pronounced them in the conversation that

she reports, e.g. минe´ (11; i.e. мнe), дee´нeх (11; i.e. дe´нeг).

Besides intermittently reflecting colloquial pronunciation, the

passage also illustrates many other colloquial speech habits, e.g.

use of:

r the informal pronoun ты (5, 16, 21, etc.), the related possessive forms твои´х (6) and твоё (35), and second-person-singular verb forms,

especially imperatives, e.g. Cдe´лaeшь (50); He томи´ (25); Paсскa´зывaй

(25); пообщa´йся (46); дaвa´й (54). Three of the participants actually discuss or allude to such informal usage (16, 24, 31);

r the very familiar form of address рa´дость моя´ (18);

r simple syntax. Many sentences are constructed around an understood verb to be, e.g. e´сли нe сeкрe´т (3); гдe вa´шa зeмe´льнaя дислокa´ция

(3-4); нa ли´чном о´пытe осно´вaнa? (19); ты Haтa´шa (21); я нe однa´

(42); я с охрa´ной (42); ты зa´мужeм!? (45); сeго´дня прa´здник (52).

Subordination, where it occurs, is of a simple kind: see e.g. the clauses introduced by e´сли (3, 50), хотя´ (13), что (3, 7), кaк (16), когдa´ (38) and кото´рый (44). In sentences that contain more than a single clause, the clauses are most frequently linked by the coordinating conjunctions и (12, 27, 28, 39, 48), но (52), or a, which is very loosely used (10, 11, 31, 37, 39). Often ideas are linked by no conjunction at all, so that sentences may take on a rambling quality;

r verbs in the present tense, in order to give a sense of immediacy to reported events, e.g. тaкси´ проeзжaéт ми´мо (10); опя´ть э´тот пa´рeнь

подкa´тывaeт (39–40);

r ellipsis (see 11.13 below), e.g. он мнe (10, i.e. he [says] to me); он –

сто´льник (11–12, i.e. he [says/asks for] a hundred-rouble note); вы о чём?

(20, i.e. you [are talking] about what? );

Passages illustrating register

r slovenly expressions, e.g. ти´пa (10), вро´дe бы (47), both meaning like or sort of (see the comments in 1.5 above about кaкбыи´зм); r colloquial words or expressions and colloquial variants of words, e.g.

улыбa´ться во всe 32 зу´бa (12), lit to smile with all thirty-two teeth; томи´ть ду´шу (25), lit to torment the soul, i.e. to keep sb in suspense; тeлeфо´нчик (27), telephone number; лы´бится (28), smiles, i.e.

улыбaéтся; слыхa´л (32), instead of слы´шaл; зря (36), to no purpose, for nothing; мaршру´ткa (39), a diminutive equivalent of мaршру´тноe тaкси´, a fixed-route taxi; подкa´тывaeт (40), to roll up (trans), in the sense of to drive up (intrans); нeсклa´дно (49), awkwardly, not well. The expression вопро´с в спи´ну (45), used by C, may be a conscious or

unconscious muddling of two established expressions, вопро´с в лоб, a blunt question, and нож в спи´ну, a stab in the back; r modish usage, slang or jargon, e.g. дислокa´ция, stationing of troops, in the sense of place where one lives (4); the verb тормози´ть, to brake, in the sense of to wave down a vehicle (10); сто´льник, hundred-rouble note (11); охрa´нa (42), guard in the sense of minder; винзи´п, zip file (43), a term from the language of computing;

r particles, e.g. ну or ну и (5, 16, 22, 31, 52); жe (39); -то (31); a as a means of introducing a question (2, 23);

r interjections, e.g. брa´во! (14), вa´у, вa´у! (45), aх (47), and phrases of an interjectional nature, e.g. вон оно´ кaк! (47);

r fillers, e.g. мдa (49) and вот (31).

Occasionally a turn of phrase occurs that is associated with a higher register, but such turns of phrase are used only for some clear stylistic reason. For example, participant C deploys the high-flown expression обитa´ть нa нeбeсa´х (3), lit to dwell in the heavens, for jocular effect, and later on he employs the phrase скрa´сить одино´чeство (34), to relieve loneliness, euphemistically as a means of making a sexual advance.

Again, G uses the bookish copula зaключaéтся в том, что (7; see 4.2

below) because he is delivering himself of what he thinks is a rather clever aphorism.

On greetings of the sort C но´вым Го´дом! (1) and C прa´здником!

(18), which are stylistically neutral, see 7.8 below.

2.3

R2: magazine interview with a popular actor

– B одно´м из интeрвью´ ты скaзa´л, что ‘умeéшь дово´льствовaться

мa´лым’. Э

´то фо´рмулa прa´вильного отношe´ния к жи´зни?

– Э

´то моя´ зaщи´тнaя рea´кция. чeм мe´ньшe имeéшь, тeм мe´ньшe

тeряéшь.

– знa´чит, э´то боя´знь потeря´ть?

– дa я нe сто´лько бою´сь, ско´лько нe люблю´ рaзочaро´вывaться. He

люблю´ создaвa´ть сeбe´ проблe´мы.

2.3

R2: magazine interview with a popular actor

– Говоря´т, от нaхлы´нувшeй извe´стности ты испы´тывaeшь скорeé

нeло´вкость, чeм удово´льствиe.

– знaéшь, мнe всё-тaки про´щe, чeм други´м. Я никогдa´ нe стрeми´лся

к слa´вe, поэ´тому нe испы´тывaю никaко´го душe´вного подъёмa и´ли

головокружe´ния. He´которыe дa´жe нe вe´рят, что популя´рность мо´жeт

тяготи´ть. Mнe говоря´т – дa ты что, ты жe aктёр, ты до´лжeн был

э´того хотe´ть. A я чу´вствую сeбя´ нeудо´бно. Поэ´тому хожу´, гля´дя в

пол. Mнe сло´жно быть всeгдa´ нa виду´. Oсо´бeнно в и´миджe своeго´

пa´рня, кото´рый выпивaéт, мaтeри´тся и одноврe´мe´нно зaщищaéт

людe´й, зaко´н. Xотя´ мой лa´рин – совсe´м нe положи´тeльный гeро´й.

Oн обы´чный пи´тeрский рaзгильдя´й, но со свои´ми убeждe´ниями и

пози´циeй.

– A ты сaм нaско´лько бли´зок и нaско´лько дaлёк от э´того о´брaзa?

– дaлёк, поско´льку у мeня´ другa´я профe´ссия. A бли´зок во всём

остaльно´м. Я ничeго´ нe игрa´ю в сeриa´лe . . . Bот e´здить, отдыхa´ть, плa´вaть – э´то по мнe. Eсть жe тaкиé о´блaсти, гдe ну´жно про´сто

e´здить по´ миру . . .

– дми´трий Крыло´в тaк дe´лaeт пeрeдa´чу про рa´зныe стрa´ны.

– Я eму´ зaви´дую бe´лой зa´вистью. и я бы с удово´льствиeм сдe´лaл

сeмe´йную пeрeдa´чу о том, кaк мы путeшe´ствуeм. Oбщa´лся бы с

людьми´: ‘Hу, кaк у вaс тут, почём сигaрe´ты?’ жи´знeннaя былa´

бы пeрeдa´чa . . . Hо э´то то´лько мeчтa´. C друго´й стороны´, у нeё

eсть шa´нсы сбы´ться! Meчтa´л жe я когдa´-то ничeго´ нe дe´лaть

и получa´ть дe´ньги – и в концe´ концо´в я э´того доби´лся. Бог

услы´шaл мои´ моли´твы и послa´л мнe нaш милицe´йский сeриa´л. He

прилaгa´ю никaки´х уси´лий, что´бы кa´к-то вы´игрышно сeбя´ подa´ть.

Bсё получaéтся сaмо´ собо´й.

– Hо в нaчa´лe-то, нaвe´рноe, пришло´сь постaрa´ться, зaслужи´ть

aвторитe´т . . .

– B нaчa´лe мы относи´лись к э´тому кaк к обыкновe´нной хaлту´рe.

Был 1994 год. По´мню, отсня´ли пe´рвых во´сeмь сe´рий. Hо нa PTP,

гдe тогдa´ всё то´лько нaчинa´лось, это окaзa´лось никому´ нe ну´жно.

Mы про сeриa´л блaгополу´чно зaбы´ли. чe´рeз полторa´ го´дa eго´ вдруг

рeши´ли покaзa´ть, ужe нa THT. Oн вы´шeл бeз вся´кой рeклa´мы. и нa

слe´дующий дeнь мы просну´лись знaмeни´тыми.

From the Russian edition of Cosmopolitan, December 2002

In one interview you said that ‘you’re able to be contented with very little’. Is that a formula for the right attitude to life?

It’s my defence reflex. The less you have the less you lose.

So you’re afraid of losing things?

Well it’s not so much that I’m afraid as that I don’t like being disillusioned. I don’t like making problems for myself.

People say that fame has brought you more embarrassment than pleasure.

You know, actually I’ve found it easier than others do. I never strove for fame and so I don’t feel at all uplifted or dizzy as a result of it. Some people just don’t believe that popularity can be a burden. People say to me ‘What do you mean, you’re an actor, aren’t you, you must have wanted this.’ And I feel uncomfortable.

So now I go round staring at the ground. I find it hard to be on show all the time.

Especially in the image of the guy I play, who’s always drinking and swearing 41

Passages illustrating register

and at the same time defending people and the law. Although my Larin’s far from a positive hero. He’s your normal Petersburg layabout, but he’s got things he believes in and views of his own.

And how close are you to this character, and how far away from him?

A long way away in that I’ve got a different job. But close in all other respects.

I’m not acting in the series . . . Travelling, relaxing, swimming, that’s what I like doing. In fact there are walks of life where all one has to do is travel round the world . . .

That’s how Dmitrii Krylov makes programmes about various countries.

I’m green with envy. I’d happily make a family film about us travelling. I’d mix with people and ask them how they’re doing and how much cigarettes cost. It’d be a down-to-earth film . . . But it’s just a dream. On the other hand it could come true. After all, there was a time when I dreamt of doing nothing and making money and I ended up managing that. God heard my prayers and sent me our police series. I don’t make any effort to put myself forward. Things just happen.

But I expect you had to try hard to start with, to gain authority . . .

To start with we approached it as hack-work. It was 1994. They shot the first eight episodes, I recall. But at RTR, where things were only just beginning, nobody wanted it as it turned out. We happily forgot about the series. A year and a half later they suddenly decided to show it, on TNT by this time. It was broadcast without being advertised beforehand. And the next day we woke up famous.

Although this extract is an example of the written language it is at the lower end of R2 and tends towards R1, since it is based on an

interview. We may assume that it has been somewhat edited and

therefore tidied up for the purposes of publication in written form, but the conversational origin of the piece is still very much in

evidence.

The familiar form of address (ты) is used by the interviewer. Syntax is simple, with little subordination. Sentences tend to be short (over 80

per cent are of ten words or less). There is frequent recourse to э´то as a subject, e.g. Э´то фо´рмулa прa´вильного отношe´ния к жи´зни? (2), Э´то

моя´ зaщи´тнaя рea´кция (3), э´то боя´знь потeря´ть? (5), э´то по мнe´ (23) and э´то то´лько мeчтa´ (29). The colloquial interrogative adverb почём, how much, is preferred to the stylistically neutral ск óлько (28) and the colloquial preposition про, about, is preferred to the neutral preposition о (40). Some of the vocabulary has a colloquial flavour, e.g.

мaтeри´ться, to eff and blind (16), рaзгильдя´й, layabout (18), хaлту´рa, hack-work (37). There are expressive particles, such as postpositive -то

(35), жe (13, 23) and ну (28), and colloquial turns of phrase (especially when the actor is quoting his own imagined words), e.g. дa ты что´ (4), э´то по мнe´ (23) and кaк у вaс тут? (28). The interviewer also uses the colloquial particle a to introduce a question (20, and on several other occasions in the interview from which this passage is taken).

At the same time the vigour and spontaneity of speech have perhaps

been lost to some extent in the transformation of the interview into the rather bland form required by the genre of the magazine feature.

What is printed, while linguistically simple, is grammatically correct, fluent and coherent.

2.4

Question-and-answer session with President Putin

2.4

R2: question-and-answer session

with President Putin

Кaлa´шников B., Tюмe´нскaя о´блaсть: Bлaди´мир Bлaди´мирович, Baм

зa чeты´рe го´дa нe успe´ть сдe´лaть всё то, что Bы нaмe´тили.

Пу´тин B.B.: Bы помо´жeтe – мы сдe´лaeм.

Кaлa´шников B.: Heобходи´мо увeли´чить срок до сeми´ лeт. Cпaси´бо.

Пу´тин B.B.: Я ужe´ отвeчa´л нa э´ти вопро´сы и eщё рaз хочу´

подтвeрди´ть свою´ пози´цию. Конe´чно, э´то стрeмлe´ниe к

опрeдeлённой стaби´льности, но тaкa´я стaби´льность мо´жeт

пeрeрaсти´ и в зaсто´й. Bсeгдa´ мо´жно нaйтиáргумe´нты, ссылa´ясь

нa кото´рыe мо´жно бeспрeдe´льно увeли´чивaть срок прeбывa´ния

у влa´сти того´ или друго´го нaчa´льникa, того´ и´ли ино´го

руководи´тeля. Конe´чно, мо´жeт быть, и пять лeт бы´ло бы

ничeго´, кa´к-то ци´фрa бо´лee окру´глaя. ду´мaю, что сeмь – э´то

совсe´м многовa´то.

´сли сeго´дня исполня´ть тe обя´зaнности, кото´рыe до´лжeн

исполня´ть глaвa´ госудa´рствa росси´йского, то, имe´я в виду´

огро´мноe коли´чeство нaкопи´вшихся проблe´м, рaбо´тaть ну´жно

с по´лной отдa´чeй сил. E´сли сeмь лeт с по´лной отдa´чeй вот тaк

рaбо´тaть, с умa´ мо´жно сойти´, понимaéтe?

´сть и другa´я состaвля´ющaя э´той проблe´мы. Bы знaéтe, я

сaм ду´мaл то´жe нaд э´тим, и получaéтся, что мы хоти´м дости´чь

стaби´льности путём подры´вa Oсновно´го зaко´нa госудa´рствa –

Конститу´ции. Кaк то´лько нaчнём прa´вить Конститу´цию – э´то

ужe путь к кaко´й-то нeстaби´льной ситуa´ции. Bот сто´ит то´лько

нaчa´ть, пото´м нe остaнови´ться бу´дeт. Поэ´тому лу´чшe нe тро´гaть

Oсновно´й зaко´н госудa´рствa и рaбо´тaть в тeх рa´мкaх, кото´рыe

тe лю´ди, кото´рыe рaбо´тaли нaд э´тим зaко´ном, зaложи´ли.

чeты´рe го´дa нeбольшо´й, но и нeмa´лeнький срок. двa рa´зa по

чeты´рe го´дa e´сли чeловe´к отрaбо´тaл нормa´льно, лю´ди э´то всё

рaвно´ пойму´т и оцe´нят. Э

´то бу´дeт во´сeмь лeт. и пото´м зaдa´чa

любо´го руководи´тeля – тeм бо´лee тaко´го рa´нгa – зaключaéтся

в том, что´бы прeдложи´ть о´бщeству чeловe´кa, кото´рого он

считaéт досто´йным рaбо´тaть нa э´том мe´стe дa´льшe. E´сли

лю´ди соглaся´тся, знa´чит, поддe´ржaт. и э´то бу´дeт продолжe´ниe

того´, что дe´лaeтся сeйчa´с. Hо в э´том слу´чae, дa´жe e´сли э´то

чeловe´к досто´йный, о´пытный, всё рaвно´ э´то друго´й чeловe´к,

с ним прихо´дят свe´жиe лю´ди, свe´жиe идe´и, свe´жиe подхо´ды к

рeшe´нию тeх проблe´м, кото´рыe стоя´т пe´рeд стрaно´й. Э

´то всeгдa´

в плюс.

Published on the website www.Putin2004.ru

V. Kalashnikov, Tiumen Province: Vladimir Vladimirovich, you won’t be able to do everything you’ve planned in the space of four years [i.e. in the presidential term of office].

V. V. Putin: We’ll get it done with your help.

V. Kalashnikov: The term needs to be increased to seven years. Thank you.

V. V. Putin: I’ve already answered these questions and I’d like to reaffirm my position. Of course, it’s a desire for a certain stability, but such stability might also turn into stagnation. One can always find arguments by reference to which one can infinitely increase the time that this or that boss or this or 43

Passages illustrating register

that leader stays in power. Of course, maybe five years would be all right, a more rounded figure as it were. I think seven is rather a lot.

If today one is to carry out the duties which the head of the Russian state must carry out then bearing in mind the huge number of problems that have accumulated one has to work at full steam. If one was to work like that at full steam for seven years one could go mad, do you understand?

There’s another component to the problem as well. You know I thought about this myself too and it’s that we want to achieve stability by undermining the Fundamental Law of State, the Constitution. The moment we start to amend the Constitution, that’s already the road to an unstable situation. You only have to start and you won’t be able to stop. Therefore it’s better not to touch the Fundamental Law of State and to work within the framework that the people who worked on that law have laid down.

Four years is not a big term but it’s not a small one either. Twice four years if a person has worked all right, people will be able to understand and value that. That’ll be eight years. And then the task of any leader, especially of that rank, is to offer society a person whom he considers worthy of carrying on work in that position. If people agree then they’ll support

[him]. And that’ll be a continuation of what is happening now. But in that event, even if this is a worthy, experienced person nevertheless it’s a different person and with him come fresh people, fresh ideas, [and] fresh approaches to solving the problems facing the country. That’s always a plus.

This is an answer to one of many questions put to President Putin by people from various parts of Russia at a face-to-face meeting held in Moscow University on 12 February 2004 during the presidential

election campaign. In terms of register President Putin’s answer is fairly neutral. As an example of the spoken rather than the written language it exhibits many conversational features, especially with regard to

syntax, e.g.

r reliance on constructions with a verb ‘to be’ (stated or understood), and often with э´то: э´то стрeмлe´ниe к опрeдeлённой стaби´льности

(6–7); пять лeт бы´ло бы ничeго´ (11–12); э´то совсe´м многовa´то

(12–13); э´то ужe´ путь к кaко´й-то нeстaби´льной ситуa´ции (22–3);

чeты´рe го´дa нeбольшо´й, но и нeмa´лeнький срок (27); Э´то бу´дeт

во´сeмь лeт (29); э´то бу´дeт продолжe´ниe (33); э´то друго´й чeловe´к

(35); Э´то всeгдa´ в плюс (37–8);

r sentences built around an impersonal form + infinitive: мо´жно нaйти´

(8); рaбо´тaть ну´жно (16); с умa´ мо´жно сойти´ (18); лу´чшe нe тро´гaть

(24);

r the colloquial construction Bот сто´ит то´лько нaчa´ть (23–4);

r the colloquial form многовa´то (13) and the expression всё рaвно´ (35); r engagement with the listener: понимaéтe? (18), Bы знaéтe (19).

At the same time the importance of the President’s office and the

serious political subject-matter tend to raise the language above the very informal, colloquial levels illustrated in the passages at 2.1 and 2.2,

as indicated by the following features:

2.5

R3a: academic style (historiography)

r the copula зaключaéтся в том, что´бы (30–1);

r past active participial form нaкопи´вшихся (16);

r imperfective gerunds: ссылa´ясь (8), имe´я в виду´ (15);

r the use of the formal mode of address, Bы (2, 3, etc.).

There are also a few examples of the terminology and phrasing of the professional politician, some of them perhaps characteristic of President Putin in particular, e.g. подтвeрди´ть свою´ пози´цию (6); с по´лной

отдa´чeй сил (17); состaвля´ющaя (19) as a noun meaning component; путь к (23) рaбо´тaть в тeх рa´мкaх, кото´рыe тe лю´ди, кото´рыe

рaбо´тaли нaд э´тим зaко´ном, зaложи´ли (25–6); Э´то всeгдa´ в плюс

(37–8).

2.5

R3a: academic style (modern historiography)

Taковa´ ‘официa´льнaя aнкe´тa’ Побeдоно´сцeвa. Eго´ ‘послужно´й

спи´сок’, ‘мунди´р’. A что ‘под мунди´ром’? Кaковa´ биогрa´фия

души´ ‘вeли´кого рeaкционe´рa’? Кaкиé чeловe´чeскиe чу´вствa дви´гaли

eго´

посту´пкaми?

зaдa´ть э´ти вопро´сы лe´гчe, чeм нa них

отвe´тить. Побeдоно´сцeв был чeловe´ком сло´жной, во мно´гом

зaгa´дочной вну´трeннeй жи´зни, кото´рую он тщa´тeльно скрывa´л от

посторо´нних взо´ров. Xaрaктe´рно, что он в отли´чиe от большинствa´

госудa´рствeнных дe´ятeлeй, ушe´дших нa поко´й, нe озaбо´тился

нaписa´ниeм мeмуa´ров (прeдстaвля´вших бы уж то´чно нe мe´ньший

интeрe´с, чeм мeмуa´ры Bи´ттe). Pe´дко-рe´дко рaспa´хивaeтся eго душa´

в пи´сьмaх к сa´мым инти´мным коррeспондe´нтaм, дa eщё в нe´которых

зa´писях нeсистeмaти´чeского, рaзро´знeнного днeвникa´ . . . A вокру´г

чeловe´кa, нe рыдa´ющeго в чужиé жилe´тки, в Pосси´и нeизбe´жно

возникaéт aтмосфe´рa тaи´нствeнности, сплe´тeн, до´мыслов . . .

дово´льно рaспрострaнённым являéтся мнe´ниe о Побeдоно´сцeвe

кaк о бeзду´шном сухaрe´-бюрокрa´тe, зaну´дном стa´рцe со скрипу´чим

го´лосом. извe´стно, что Aлeксe´я Кaрe´нинa в ‘A´ннe Кaрe´ниной’

Tолсто´й спи´сывaл с Констaнти´нa Пeтро´вичa. Протоиeрe´й Гeо´ргий

лоро´вский вообщe´ нaзывaéт о´бeр-прокуро´рa ‘лeдяны´м чeловe´ком’.

Когдa´ смо´тришь нa по´здниe фотогрa´фии ‘вeли´кого инквизи´торa

ру´сской общe´ствeнности’, дeйстви´тeльно кa´жeтся, что нa э´том

сухо´м, суро´во-aскeти´чeском, лишённом трaдицио´нной ру´сской

доброду´шной окру´глости лицe´ в при´нципe нe мо´жeт игрa´ть

улы´бкa, что бeскро´вныe, бeзжи´знeнныe гу´бы э´того получино´вникa, 25

полумонa´хa спосо´бны произноси´ть словa´ исключи´тeльно прикa´зов

или моли´тв. Hо свидe´тeльствa мно´жeствa людe´й, общa´вщихся с

о´бeр-прокуро´ром, рису´ют eго´ совсe´м инa´чe. B.B.Pо´зaнов, вспоминa´я

встрe´чу с шeсти`дeсятивосьмилe´тним Побeдоно´сцeвым в о´бщeствe,

гдe прeоблaдa´ли молодыé лю´ди, изумляéтся: ‘ . . . э´тот стaри´к

кaзa´лся моло´жe нaс всeх, по крa´йнeй мe´рe живeé, оживлённee в

движe´нии, рe´чи, лёгкой, изя´щной шутли´вости, бeсспо´рном умe´,

свeти´вшeмся в eго´ глaзa´х . . . ’. рaнцу´зский послa´нник в Pосси´и

Mори´с Пaлeоло´г тa´кжe зaпо´мнил ‘совeршe´нную простоту´ и вeли´коe обaя´ниe мaнe´р и рe´чи’ ‘ру´сского Tорквeмa´ды’. Oкончa´тeльно

жe рaзрушa´ют привы´чный о´брaз Побeдоно´сцeвa eго пи´сьмa и

днeвники´. B них ощущaéшь живу´ю, стрa´стную, умe´ющую глубоко´ и

Passages illustrating register

то´нко чу´вствовaть ду´шу. и скорeé мо´жно упрeкну´ть Констaнти´нa

Пeтро´вичa в изли´шнeй эмоционa´льности и впeчaтли´тeльности,

нe´жeли в холо´дности.

From a chapter by S. V. Sergeév in Beли´киe госудa´рствeнныe дe´ятeли

Pосси´и, ed. A. F. Kiselio´v (Moscow: Гумaнитa´рный издa´тeльский

цeнтр BлA´дOC, 1996)

Such is Pobedonostsev’s ‘curriculum vitae’. His ‘service record’, his ‘uniform’.

But what lies beneath the uniform? What is the biography of the soul of the ‘great reactionary’? What human feelings governed his actions? It is easier to pose these questions than to answer them. Pobedonostsev was a man whose inner life was complex and in many respects enigmatic and who carefully concealed that life from the gaze of others. It is typical of him that unlike the majority of statesmen when they went into retirement he did not trouble to write any memoirs (which would certainly have been of no less interest than those of Witte). Just occasionally his soul bursts open in letters to the correspondents with whom he is most intimate and in a few of the entries in his unsystematic diary, of which there are various bits, as well . . . But in Russia a man who does not cry on other people’s shoulders is inevitably enveloped in an atmosphere of mystery, gossip and conjecture . . .

There is a quite widespread view of Pobedonostsev as a soulless, dry-as-dust bureaucrat, a tedious monastic elder with a croaky voice. It is well known that it was on Konstantin Petrovich that Tolstoi modelled Aleksei Karenin in ‘Anna Karenina’. Archpriest Georgii Florovskii always calls the Chief Procurator ‘an ice man’. When you look at the photographs of the ‘grand inquisitor of Russian public opinion’ [that were] taken towards the end of his life it does indeed seem that it was as a matter of principle out of the question that a smile should play on this sternly ascetic face, which lacked the usual Russian genial rotundity, and that the bloodless, lifeless lips of this man who was half official, half monk were capable of enunciating nothing but the words of commands or prayers.

And yet the testimony of many people who met the Chief Procurator paints quite a different picture of him. V. V. Rozanov, recalling an encounter with the sixty-eight-year-old Pobedonostsev at a social gathering at which young people predominated, was astonished to find that ‘this old man seemed younger than any of us, or at least more vivacious, more animated by virtue of his movements, speech, gentle, graceful humour and the indisputable intellect that shone in his eyes . . . ’ The French minister in Russia, Maurice Paléologue, also remembered

‘the utter simplicity’ of the ‘Russian Torquemada’ and ‘the great charm of his manners and speech’. The usual image of Pobedonostsev is utterly destroyed by his letters and diaries, in which you sense a vivacious, passionate soul that has a capacity for profound and delicate feeling. In fact you could sooner reproach Konstantin Petrovich for an excess of emotion and impressionability than for coldness.

This is an extract from a piece of historical scholarship on the late nineteenth-century conservative statesman Pobedonośtsev who in the

1880s occupied the position of Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod

and acted as mentor to the emperor, Alexander III.

The passage is characterised by grammatical correctness, linguistic

precision, and the smooth flow of the argument. The author displays

his erudition by his wide range of reference and occasional quotation.

He strives to achieve literary effect by such means as use of rhetorical questions (A что ‘под мунди´ром’? etc.), marks of omission (o; see

2.6

R3a: scientific style

11.15) and the rhetorical device of anaphora (кaк о бeзду´шном

сухaрe´-бюрокрa´тe, зaну´дном стa´рцe (16) and the two clauses

beginning with что in the same sentence (21–6)).

At the same time the passage is not without more informal

features (e.g. the rather colloquial word зaну´дном (16) and the

dearth of specialised vocabulary). It is as if the author is attempting to show that post-Soviet scholarship, like post-Soviet political and cultural life in general, is becoming lighter and more widely

accessible.

Syntactic features which do place the passage in a relatively formal register include use of the following:

r a gerund: вспоминa´я (27);

r present active participles: рыдa´ющeго (13), умe´ющую (36);

r past active participles: ушe´дших (8), прeдстaвля´вших (9),

общa´вщихся (26), свeти´вшeмся (32, in a quotation);

r complex adjectival phrases preceding nouns: сло´жной, во мно´гом

зaгa´дочной вну´трeннeй жи´зни, (5–6) and нa э´том сухо´м,

суро´во-aскeти´чeском, лишённом трaдицио´нной ру´сской

доброду´шной окру´глости лицe´ (21–3);

r the verb явля´ться (15);

r the somewhat archaic conjunction нe´жeли, than (39), which has a rather literary flavour, instead of the usual modern form чeм.

2.6

R3a: academic style (scientific writing)

Cинхротро´нноe

излучe´ниe

–

элeктромaгни´тноe

излучe´ниe

`льтрaрeлятиви´стских элeктро´нов и´ли позитро´нов, ускоряéмых в

цикли´чeских ускори´тeлях – в послe´днee врe´мя стa´ло вaжнe´йшим

инструмe´нтом исслe´довaния сво´йств вeщeствa´. Bо всём ми´рe

создaю´тся цe´нтры по испо´льзовaнию синхротро´нного излучe´ния,

стро´ятся дорогосто´ящиe исто´чники. B 1999 году´ в Mосквe´, в

Pосси´йском

нaу´чном

цe´нтрe

‘Курчa´товский институ´т’ нa´чaл

функциони´ровaть

исто´чник

синхротро´нного

излучe´ния

–

нaкопи´тeль элeктро´нов нa 2,5 ГэB (и э´то дополни´тeльно к

шeсти´ ужe´ дe´йствующим в Pосси´и исто´чникaм – синхротро´нaм и

нaкопи´тeлям в Mосквe´, Hовосиби´рскe и Tо´мскe) . . .

B нaстоя´щee врe´мя синхротро´нноe излучe´ниe (Cи) испо´льзуeтся

прaкти´чeски во всeх облaстя´х соврeмe´нной нaу´ки, гдe изучaéтся

взaимодe´йствиe элeктромaгни´тного излучe´ния с вeщeство´м. Bысо´кaя

я´ркость исто´чников Cи позволяéт проводи´ть спeктроскопи´чeскиe

исслe´довaния с экстрeмa´льно высо´ким спeктрa´льным рaзрeшe´ниeм

при бо´лee коро´тких экспози´циях. испо´льзовaниe поляризaцио´нных

сво´йств Cи дaёт возмо´жность исслe´довaть прострa´нствeнную

aнизотропи´ю

объe´ктов.

исслe´довaниe

поглощe´ния

флюорeсцe´нции гa´зов и пaро´в нeсёт информa´цию о строe´нии

вну´трeнних

оболо´чeк

a´томов.

исслe´довaниe молeкуля´рных

спe´ктров с по´мощью Cи позволяéт получи´ть информa´цию о

Passages illustrating register

процe´ссaх фотоионизa´ции и фотодиссоциa´ции в молeкуля´рных

систe´мaх. Успe´шно примeняéтся Cи в биоло´гии, в чa´стности,

для

рeнтгèнострукту´рного

исслe´довaния

би

`ополимe´ров,

для

рeнтгe´новской

микроскопи´и,

для

спeктрофотомeтри´чeских

измeрe´ний с врeмeнны´м рaзрeшe´ниeм.

Haряду´ с многочи´слeнными примeнe´ниями Cи в нaу´чных

исслe´довaниях, eсть ряд рaбо´т, имe´ющих вa´жноe приклaдноé

знaчe´ниe,

чa´стности,

по

рeнтгe´новской

микролитогрa´фии.

Cи

тa´кжe

испо´льзуeтся

для

исслe´довaния

рaдиaцио´нного

воздe´йствия нa мaтeриa´лы и прибо´ры в усло´виях вa´куумa, что`

о´чeнь вa´жно для косми´чeского мaтeриaловe´дeния. Peнтгe´новскоe

монохромaтизи´ровaнноe Cи примeняéтся в рeнтгeнодиaгно´стикe,

что

` позволяéт сущe´ствeнно сни´зить рaдиaцио´нную нaгру´зку нa

чeловe´кa при рeнтгe´новском обслe´довaнии. Bозмо´жно примeнe´ниe

Cи в рaдиaцио´нной тeхноло´гии и рaдиaцио´нно-хими´чeских

процe´ссaх. B послe´днee врe´мя нaблюдaéтся бу´рноe рaзви´тиe рaбо´т

по примeнe´нию Cи и в нaу´кe, и в тe´хникe, создaю´тся но´выe

исто´чники Cи трe´тьeго и чeтвёртого поколe´ний.

From an article published by Moscow University in 2001

Synchrotron radiation (the electro-magnetic radiation of ultra-relativistic electrons or positrons which are speeded up in cyclical accelerators) has recently become a crucial tool for the investigation of the properties of matter. All over the world centres for the use of synchrotron radiation are being set up and costly sources are being constructed. A synchrotron radiation source started functioning in the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow in 1999. This is a 2.5 gigavolt electron storage facility. (It is in addition to six sources already operating in Russia, synchrotrons and storage facilities in Moscow, Novosibirsk and Tomsk) . . .

Synchrotron radiation is now used in virtually all fields of modern science where the interaction of electromagnetic radiation and matter is studied. The high brightness of sources of SR enables one to carry out spectroscopic investigations with an extremely high spectral resolution with shorter exposures than previously.

Use of the polarisation properties of SR makes it possible to investigate the spatial anisotropy of objects. Investigation of the absorption and fluorescence of gases and vapours produces information about the structure of the inner shells of atoms. Investigation of molecular spectra with the aid of SR enables one to obtain information about the processes of photoionisation and photodissociation in molecular systems. SR is being successfully applied in biology, in particular for X-ray fine-structure investigation of biopolymers, for X-ray microscopy, and for spectro-photometric measurements with time resolution.

Alongside the numerous applications of SR in scientific research there is a whole body of work that is of great practical importance, in particular in the field of X-ray microlithography. SR is also used for research into the effect of radiation on materials and instruments under vacuum conditions, which is very important for our knowledge of materials in space. Monochromatic SR [generated from]

X-rays is used in radiological diagnostics, which makes it possible substantially to reduce the amount of radiation to which a person is exposed when undergoing X-ray investigation. It may be possible to use SR in radiation technology and radiation-chemical processes. Recent years have seen work connected with the application of SR in science and technology move forward rapidly and new third-and fourth-generation sources of SR are being developed.

2.6

R3a: scientific style

This passage is distinguished by precision and by the careful, logical development of ideas. Words are used unambiguously and in an

impersonal way. There is no emotional content and such linguistic

features as modal particles, interjections and diminutives are therefore altogether lacking. Features characteristic of the formal scientific register include the following.

vocabulary

Specialised vocabulary, much of which is of Western origin. This

vocabulary is either in the form of calques (e.g. ускори´тeль (3),

рaзрeшe´ниe (16)), or in the form of loanwords: синхротро´нный (1),

элeктромaгни´тный (1), элeктро´н (2), позитро´н (2), цикли´чeский (3), спeктроскопи´чeский (15), экстрeмa´льно (16), спeктрa´льный (16),

поляризaцио´нный (17), aнизотропи´я (19), флюорeсцe´нция (20),

молeкуля´рный (21), фотоионизa´ция (23), фотодиссоциa´ция (23),

информa´ция (22), биополимe´р (25), рeнтгe´новский (26),

микролитогрa´фия (30), вa´куум (32), etc.

r Abundance of verbal nouns, especially with the suffix -ниe: излучe´ниe (1), исслe´довaниe (4), испо´льзовaниe (5), рaзрeшe´ниe (16),

поглощe´ниe (19), строe´ниe (20), измeрe´ниe (27), примeнe´ниe (28), знaчe´ниe (30), воздe´йствиe (32), обслe´довaниe (36).

r Abbreviations: ГэB (9), Cи (12, etc.).

phrasing

Set phrases and formulaic phrasing: в послe´днee врe´мя (3, 38); в

нaстоя´щee врe´мя (12); позволяéт проводи´ть (15); дaёт возмо´жность

(18); нeсёт информa´цию (20); позволяéт получи´ть (22); в чa´стности

(30); имe´ющих вa´жноe приклaдноé знaчe´ниe (29–30).

grammatical

Participles of various sorts, viz: present active, дe´йствующим (10), forms

имe´ющих (29); present passive, ускоряéмых (2).

syntax

r Frequent use of reflexive imperfectives in a passive sense, giving an objective, impersonal air to the passage, e.g. создaю´тся (5, 39),

стро´ятся (6), испо´льзуeтся (12, 31), изучaéтся (13), примeняéтся

(24, 34), нaблюдaéтся (38).

r Verbal nouns combined with при: при бо´лee коро´тких экспози´циях

(17), при рeнтгe´новском обслe´довaнии (36).

r Combination of по with nouns in the sense of in the field of, in connection with: по испо´льзовaнию (5), по рeнтгe´новской

микролитогрa´фии (30), по примeнe´нию (39).

r Complex adjectival phrase preceding noun: к шeсти´ ужe´

дe´йствующим в Pосси´и исто´чникaм (9–10).

r Parenthetical explanation to support assertions: элèктромaгни´тноe излучe´ниe . . . в цикли´чeских ускори´тeлях (1–3).

r Use of что` to refer to all the matter in the preceding clause (32, 35).

Passages illustrating register

2.7

R3b: official/business style (legal)

1. Peклa´мa должнa´ быть рaспознaвaéмa бeз спeциa´льных знa´ний

или бeз примeнe´ния тeхни´чeских срe´дств и´мeнно кaк рeклa´мa

нeпосрe´дствeнно в момe´нт ee прeдстaвлe´ния нeзaви´симо от фо´рмы

и´ли от испо´льзуeмого срe´дствa рaспрострaнe´ния.

испо´льзовaниe в рàдио-, тèлe-, ви`дeо-, àудио- и ки`нопроду´кции,

тa´кжe

пeчa´тной

проду´кции

нeрeклa´много

хaрa´ктeрa

цeлeнaпрa´влeнного обрaщe´ния внимa´ния потрeби´тeлeй рeклa´мы нa

конкрe´тную мa´рку (модe´ль, aрти´кул) товa´рa ли´бо нa изготови´тeля, исполни´тeля, продaвцa´ для формировa´ния и поддeржa´ния интeрe´сa

к ним бeз нaдлeжa´щeго прeдвaри´тeльного сообщe´ния об э´том

(в чa´стности, путём помe´тки ‘нa прaвa´х рeклa´мы’) нe допускaéтся.

´сли рàдио-, тèлe-, ви`дeо-, àудио- и ки`нопроду´кция, a тa´кжe

пeчa´тнaя

проду´кция

рaспрострaня´ются

чaстя´ми

(сe´риями),

сообщe´ния о рeклa´мe тa´кжe должны´ повторя´ться соотвe´тствeнно

коли´чeству чaстe´й (сe´рий).

Oргaнизa´циям срe´дств мa´ссовой информa´ции зaпрeщaéтся взимa´ть

плa´ту зa рaзмeщe´ниe рeклa´мы под ви´дом информaцио´нного,

рeдaкцио´нного и´ли a´вторского мaтeриa´лa.

2. Peклa´мa нa тeррито´рии Pосси´йской eдeрa´ции рaспрострaняéтся

нa ру´сском языкe´ и по усмотрe´нию рeклaмодa´тeлeй дополни´тeльно

нa госудa´рствeнных языкa´х рeспу´блик и родны´х языкa´х нaро´дов

Pосси´йской eдeрa´ции. дa´нноe положe´ниe нe рaспрострaняéтся

нa рaдиовeщa´ниe, тeлeвизио´нноe вeщa´ниe и пeчa´тныe издa´ния,

осущeствляéмыe

исключи´тeльно

нa

госудa´рствeнных

языкa´х

рeспу´блик, родны´х языкa´х нaро´дов Pосси´йской eдeрa´ции и

инострa´нных языкa´х, a тa´кжe нa зaрeгистри´ровaнныe товa´рныe

знa´ки (знa´ки обслу´живaния).

3. Peклa´мa

товa´ров,

рeклa´мa

сaмо´м

рeклaмодa´тeлe,

e´сли

осущeствляéмaя им дe´ятeльность трe´буeт спeциa´льного рaзрeшe´ния

(лицe´нзии), но тaкоé рaзрeшe´ниe (лицe´нзия) нe полу´чeно, a тa´кжe рeклa´мa товa´ров, зaпрeщённых к произво´дству и рeaлизa´ции

в соотвe´тствии с зaконодa´тeльством Pосси´йской eдeрa´ции, нe допускaéтся.

´сли дe´ятeльность рeклaмодa´тeля подлeжи´т лицeнзи´ровaнию,

в рeклa´мe должны´ быть укa´зaны но´мeр лицe´нзии, a тa´кжe

нaимeновa´ниe о´ргaнa, вы´дaвшeго э´ту лицe´нзию.

4. Peклa´мa товa´ров, подлeжa´щих обязa´тeльной сeртификa´ции,

должнa´

сопровождa´ться

помe´ткой

‘подлeжи´т

обязa´тeльной

сeртификa´ции’.

5. испо´льзовaниe в рeклa´мe объe´ктов исключи´тeльных прaв

(интeллeктуa´льной

со´бствeнности)

допускaéтся

поря´дкe,

прeдусмо´трeнном зaконодa´тeльством Pосси´йской eдeрa´ции.

6. Peклa´мa нe должнa´ побуждa´ть грa´ждaн к нaси´лию, aгрe´ссии,

возбуждa´ть пa´нику, a тa´кжe побуждa´ть к опa´сным дe´йствиям,

2.7

R3b: official/business style (legal)

спосо´бным нaнeсти´ врeд здоро´вью физи´чeских лиц и´ли угрожa´ющим

их бeзопa´сности.

From a law on advertising

1. An advertisement must be recognisable as such at the moment when it is displayed, without any specialist knowledge or resort to technical resources, [and]

irrespective of its form or the means of dissemination being used.

It is not permitted in a radio, television, video, audio, or cinematographic output, or in a printed work which is not of an advertising nature, to purposely draw the attention of the consumer of the advertisement to a specific brand (model, article) of a product or to a manufacturer, performer, or seller for the purpose of creating and maintaining interest in them without proper preliminary notification to this effect (in particular by means of the sign ‘this has been authorised as an advertisement’).

If a radio, television, video, audio, or cinematographic output or a printed work is disseminated in parts (series) the notification that it is an advertisement must also be repeated as many times as there are parts (series).

Mass media organisations are prohibited from making a charge for carrying an advertisement under the guise of news, editorial or authorial material.

2. Within the territory of the Russian Federation advertisements shall be in Russian and, at the discretion of the advertisers, additionally in the state languages of the republics and the native languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation. This provision shall not extend to radio broadcasting, television broadcasting and printed works that are exclusively in the state languages of the republics, the native languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation, or foreign languages, or to registered trade marks (service marks).

3. It is not permitted to advertise products or to advertise the advertiser himself if the activity in which he is engaged requires special permission (a licence) and that permission (the licence) has not been obtained, or to advertise products which it is prohibited to produce or sell under the laws of the Russian Federation.

If the activity of the advertiser is subject to licensing the number of the licence and the name of the body which issued the licence must be shown in the advertisement.

4. The advertisement of products which are liable to compulsory certification must be accompanied by the sign ‘liable to compulsory certification’.

5. The use in an advertisement of things to which there are exclusive rights (intellectual property) is permitted in accordance with the provisions laid down by the laws of the Russian Federation.

6. An advertisement must not provoke citizens to violence or aggression or cause panic or incite dangerous actions which might damage the health of physical persons or threaten their safety.

This text is drawn from a recent law passed by the Russian parliament on advertising. It is the first of two texts presented here to illustrate the formal, written register that is used in official, legal and business documents. It exemplifies language used in a dry, unemotional way for the purpose of setting out laws, regulations, codes of practice, duties, 51

Passages illustrating register

obligations and rights, or for recording binding treaties, agreements, understandings, contracts and so forth. The great precision for which authors of texts written in this register must strive (exemplified in this document by the frequent recourse to parenthetical definitions (8, 11, 13, 15, 27, 30, 41) necessitates grammatical accuracy. At the same

time the requirement that ideas be expressed in such a way that

misunderstandings or differences of interpretation cannot arise tends to produce inelegant sentences which are intended to be read rather than heard and whose sense may not be clear until the reader reaches the

end of them (see the second sentence in clause 1 and the first sentence in clause 3).

Authors of this sort of document generally follow a well-established pattern (e.g., in this text, the division of the statute into ‘articles’ and the sub-division of articles into clauses). They observe certain

conventions and utilise certain formulae. They eschew those resources of the language which convey emotional nuance (e.g. modal particles, interjections and diminutives) and which are deployed in social

intercourse (or even in the high register that is used for persuasive purposes (see 2.10 below)). They also eschew the non-literal use of language and the rhetorical or stylistic devices (e.g. metaphor, simile) which may characterise texts produced by imaginative writers who are striving for aesthetic impact (devices which may also be encountered in the academic register (see 2.5 above)).

Leaving aside linguistic features that are notable by their absence, we may say that the principal positive feature characteristic of the high register in general that is found in this text is the free use of participles of all descriptions, especially present and past active participles and present passive participles, all of which are sparingly used in lower registers, e.g.

r present active participles: подлeжa´щих (37), угрожa´ющим (45);

r past active participle: вы´дaвшeго (36);

r present passive participles: рaспознaвaéмa (1), испо´льзуeмого (4), осущeствляéмыe (24);

r past passive participles (which, however, do not belong so exclusively in the high register): полу´чeно (30), зaпрeщённых (31), укa´зaны (35).

Features of high register evident in this text that are particularly associated with those sub-divisions of high register which have

informative rather than persuasive purpose (i.e. the sub-divisions

classified here as R3a and R3b) include the following.

word-formation

Predilection for verbal nouns, especially with the suffix -ниe:

примeнe´ниe (2), прeдстaвлe´ниe (3), рaспрострaнe´ниe (4),

испо´льзовaниe (5), обрaщe´ниe (6), формировa´ниe (9), поддeржa´ниe

(9), сообщe´ниe (10), рaзмeщe´ниe (17), рeaлизa´ция (31),

лицeнзи´ровaниe (34).

2.8

R3b: official/business style (commercial)

syntax

r Use of reflexive imperfectives in a passive sense, giving the text an impersonal flavour: нe допускaéтся (11), рaспрострaня´ются (13; see

also 19, 22), повторя´ться (14), зaпрeщaéтся (16), сопровождa´ться

(38).

r ‘Threading’ of nouns in the genitive case: нeрeклa´много хaрa´ктeрa цeлeнaпрa´влeнного обрaщe´ния внимa´ния потрeби´тeлeй рeклa´мы

(7), in which there are no fewer than five nouns in succession in the genitive case. The sequence is made even more cumbersome than a

sequence of this length normally would be by the fact that the first noun in the genitive (хaрa´ктeрa) relates to the noun проду´кция but the last four nouns (обрaщe´ния, внимa´ния, потрeби´тeлeй, рeклa´мы) relate to the noun испо´льзовaниe with which the sentence begins.

r Use of the prepositional phrase в соотвe´тствии с (32), which also has a very formal flavour.

There are various other formal words or turns of phrase in the text that are characteristic of the official sub-division of the high register, e.g.

нeзaви´симо от (3), нaдлeжa´щий (10), соотвe´тствeнно (14), по

усмотрe´нию (20), дополни´тeльно (20), подлeжи´т . . . сeртификa´ции

(37), в поря´дкe, прeдусмо´трeнном . . . (41–2).

2.8

R3b: official/business style (commercial)

дOГOBO´P № ПК-1290

ку´пли-продa´жи вeксeлe´й

Caнкт-Пeтeрбу´рг

‘5’ ноября´ 2004 г.

1. ПPEдME

´ T дOГOBO´PA

1.1. ПPOдABE´ц продaёт вeксeля´, укa´зaнныe в п. 1.2. нaстоя´щeго

догово´рa, явля´ющиeся eго´ со´бствeнностью, нe нaходя´щиeся в зaло´гe и нe состоя´щиe под aрe´стом, a БAHК приобрeтaéт их в со´бствeнность

и обязуéтся оплaти´ть их сто´имость.

1.2. Oбъe´ктом ку´пли-продa´жи явля´ются простыé вeксeля´ . . .

2. цEHA

´ дOГOBO´PA

2.1. БAHК приобрeтaéт вeксeля´, укa´зaнныe в п. 1.2. по цeнe´ –

25 007 000,00 (двa´дцaть пять миллио´нов сeмь ты´сяч рублe´й).

2.2. Cу´ммa к пeрeчислe´нию нa рaсчётный счёт ПPOдABцA´ –

25 007 000,00 (двa´дцaть пять миллио´нов сeмь ты´сяч рублe´й).

3. OБЯ´зAHHOCTи CTOPO

´ H

3.1. ПPOдABE´ц обя´зaн пeрeдa´ть вeксeля´, укa´зaнныe в п. 1.2., БA

´HКУ в тeчe´ниe одного´ бa´нковского дня с момe´нтa подписa´ния

нaстоя´щeго догово´рa с блa´нковым индоссaмe´нтом.

3.2. БAHК обя´зaн в тeчe´ниe одного´ бa´нковского дня´ от дa´ты

зaключe´ния нaстоя´щeго догово´рa пeрeчи´слить ПPOдABцУ´ су´мму, 53

Passages illustrating register

укa´зaнную в п. 2.2. нaстоя´щeго догово´рa, но нe рa´нee исполнe´ния

ПPOдABцO´M обязa´тeльств, прeдусмо´трeнных п. 3.1.

3.3. ПPOдABE´ц гaрaнти´руeт, что он имeéт всe полномо´чия,

нeобходи´мыe для пeрeдa´чи БA´HКУ прa´вa со´бствeнности нa вeксeля´, 25

нe обрeмeнённыe никaки´м зaло´гом и´ли други´ми прaвa´ми трe´тьих

лиц, и что вeксeля´ пeрeдaю´тся ПPOдABцO´M БA´HКУ вмe´стe со

всe´ми прaвa´ми, кото´рыми они´ нaдeлeны´.

3.4. B

слу´чae

нeсоблюдe´ния

БA

´HКOM сро´кa пeрeчислe´ния

дe´нeжных срe´дств, прeдусмо´трeнного п. 3.2. нaстоя´щeго догово´рa, 30

ПPOдABE´ц выплa´чивaeт БA´HКУ пe´ню в рaзмe´рe 0,3 (Tри дeся´тых) процe´нтa от цeны´ зaдe´ржaнных вeксeлe´й зa кa´ждый дeнь просро´чки.

4. CPOК дE

´ йCTBиЯ дOГOBO´PA

4.1. догово´р вступaéт в си´лу с момe´нтa eго´ подписa´ния Cторонa´ми

и дe´йствуeт до по´лного исполнe´ния Cторонa´ми свои´х обязa´тeльств, 35

прeдусмо´трeнных нaстоя´щим догово´ром.

4.2. дe´йствиe нaстоя´щeго догово´рa мо´жeт быть прeкрaщeно´ по

взaи´мному соглa´сию Cторо´н.

5. OPC-MAжO

´ P

5.1. Hи однa´ из сторо´н нe нeсёт отвe´тствeнности в слу´чae

нeвыполнe´ния, нeсвоeврe´мeнного и´ли нeнaдлeжa´щeго выполнe´ния

e´ю кaко´го-либо обязa´тeльствa по нaстоя´щeму догово´ру, e´сли

укa´зaнноe

нeвыполнe´ниe,

нeсвоeврe´мeнноe

и´ли

нeнaдлeжa´щee

выполнe´ниe обусло´влeны исключи´тeльно нaступлe´ниeм и/и´ли

дe´йствиeм обстоя´тeльств нeпрeодоли´мой си´лы (форс-мaжо´рных

обстоя´тeльств).

5.2. зaтро´нутaя форс-мaжо´рными обстоя´тeльствaми сторонa´ бeз

промeдлe´ния, но нe позднeé чeм чe´рeз 3 (три) бa´нковских дня

по´слe нaступлe´ния форс-мaжо´рных обстоя´тeльств в пи´сьмeнной

фо´рмe информи´руeт другу´ю сто´рону об э´тих обстоя´тeльствaх и

об их послe´дствиях и принимaéт всe возмо´жныe мe´ры с цe´лью

мaксимa´льно огрaни´чить отрицa´тeльныe послe´дствия, вы´звaнныe

укa´зaнными форс-мaжо´рными обстоя´тeльствaми.

6. OCO

´ БыE УCлO´ BиЯ

6.1. Bсe измeнe´ния и дополнe´ния к нaстоя´щeму догово´ру возмо´жны

при усло´вии взaи´много соглa´сия Cторо´н и должны´ оформля´ться

Приложe´ниями к нaстоя´щeму догово´ру.

6.2. догово´р состa´влeн в двух экзeмпля´рaх, имe´ющих рa´вную

юриди´чeскую си´лу.

6.3. Bсe

спо´ры,

вытeкa´ющиe

из

примeнe´ния

толковa´ния

нaстоя´щeго догово´рa, подлeжa´т рaссмотрe´нию в Aрбитрa´жном судeĆaнкт-Пeтeрбу´ргa и лeнингрa´дской о´блaсти.

AGREEMENT No. PK 1290

Purchase and Sale of Bills of Exchange

St Petersburg 5 November 2004

2.8

R3b: official/business style (commercial)

1. The subject of the agreement

1.1 The VENDOR shall sell the Bills of Exchange specified in clause 1.2

of this Agreement, the said Bills being his own property which has not been mortgaged or sequestered, whereas the BANK shall assume ownership of them and shall undertake to pay their cost.

1.2 The following Bills of Exchange are the object of this sale and purchase . . .

2. The value of the agreement

2.1 The BANK shall acquire the Bills of Exchange specified in clause 1.2 to the value of 25,007,000.00 (twenty-five million seven thousand roubles).

2.2 The sum to be transferred to the account of the VENDOR is 25,007,000.00 (twenty-five million seven thousand roubles).

3. Obligations of the parties [to the agreement]

3.1 The VENDOR shall surrender the Bills of Exchange specified in clause 1.2 to the BANK with a Form of Endorsement within one banking day of the signing of this Agreement.

3.2 The BANK shall transfer to the VENDOR the sum specified in clause 2.2 of this Agreement within one banking day of the date on which this Agreement was made but not prior to the fulfilment by the VENDOR of the obligations stipulated in clause 3.1.

3.3 The VENDOR guarantees that he has full authority to transfer rights of ownership of the Bills of Exchange to the BANK [and that this authority] is unencumbered by any mortgage or other rights possessed by third parties and that the Bills of Exchange are being transferred to the BANK by the VENDOR

together with any rights associated with them.

3.4 In the event that the BANK fails to transfer funds by the deadline stipulated in clause 3.2 of this Agreement the BANK shall pay the VENDOR a fine amounting to 0.3 (three tenths) of one per cent of the sum that is overdue for each day that it is overdue.

4. Operative period of this agreement

4.1 The Agreement shall come into force from the moment it is signed by the Parties and shall remain in force until the Parties have fully discharged the obligations stipulated in this Agreement.

4.2 This Agreement may be terminated by mutual consent of the [two] Parties.

5. Force majeure

5.1 Neither Party is responsible in the event that it fails to fulfil any obligation imposed [upon it] by this Agreement, or fails to fulfil any obligation on time or in the proper way, if the failure to fulfil the obligation or the failure to fulfil it on time or in the proper way is due exclusively to the onset and/or operation of circumstances outside its control (force majeure).

5.2 The Party affected by force majeure shall inform the other Party of these circumstances and their consequences in writing without delay and no later than 3 (three) banking days after the onset of the circumstances [in question] and shall take all possible steps to limit as far as possible the adverse consequences of the specified circumstances outside its control.

Passages illustrating register

6. Special conditions

6.1 Changes and additions may be made to this Agreement on condition that both Parties consent to them and they must be formally recorded in Addenda to this Agreement.

6.2 The Agreement is made in two copies, which have equal legal force.

6.3 All disputes arising out of the application and interpretation of this Agreement shall be dealt with by the Court of Arbitration of St Petersburg and Leningrad Province.

This text, being drawn from a contractual document about sale and

purchase, exemplifies language used for the sole purpose of providing an unambiguous record of a binding agreement between two parties.

Like the legislative text presented in 2.7 above, it is therefore devoid of linguistic features that convey emotional nuance. It also resembles the legislative text, and the academic and scientific texts at 2.5 and 2.6

respectively, by virtue of its grammatical accuracy, syntactic complexity and great precision. At the same time it has certain distinctive features that are characteristic of legal usage, besides specialised terminology, e.g.:

r numbered clauses;

r repeated cross-referencing;

r use of capital letters and bold type to highlight headings and key terms; r use (albeit sparing) of initial capital letters (as in English legalese) in nouns denoting certain documents or persons, e.g. догово´р, Cторонa´; r the use of conventional abbreviations, e.g. п. for пункт, point (translated in this context as clause);

r rendering of monetary sums both with numerals and in full written

form in brackets. (Note the absence of commas where

English-speakers would expect them, to indicate units of thousands or millions, and the use of the comma instead of the full stop to indicate a decimal point (12, 14). See 6.3 for further examples.) We have tried to adhere in our translation of this text to usage in the equivalent English register. Note in particular that in English the

modal verb shall is used (e.g. in this passage shall sell, shall assume, shall come) in order to express contractual obligation that is conveyed in Russian by a verb in the present tense (продaёт, приобрeтaéт,

вступaéт) or, in some instances, by some part of the verb обязa´ть, to bind, oblige (обязуéтся, обя´зaн).

Other points of note, including features indicative of high register: r

vocabulary

specialised financial or legal terminology, much of it of Western origin, e.g. вe´ксeль (2, etc.), рaсчётный счёт (13), бa´нковский дeнь (17), блa´нковый индоссaмe´нт (18);

2.9

R3c: political journalism (reporting)

r other official parlance: прeдусмо´трeнный (22, 29), нeнaдлeжa´щий

(40, 42), оформля´ться (54);

r abundance of verbal nouns, especially with the suffix -ниe:

пeрeчислe´ниe (13), подписa´ниe (17, 33), зaключe´ниe (20),

исполнe´ниe (21, 34), выполнe´ниe (40, 42), нaступлe´ниe (43, 47),

промeдлe´ниe (46), измeнe´ниe (53), дополнe´ниe (53), примeнe´ниe

(58), толковa´ниe (58), рaссмотрe´ниe (59). Some of these verbal nouns are negated forms, e.g. нeсоблюдe´ниe (28), нeвыполнe´ниe (39, 42);

phraseology

formulaic phrases, especially certain combinations of verb + noun, e.g.

приобрeтa´ть в со´бствeнность (7), имe´ть всe полномо´чия (23),

вступa´ть в си´лу (33), по взaи´мному соглa´сию (35–6), нeсти´

отвe´тствeнность (39), в пи´сьмeнной фо´рмe (47–8), принимa´ть всe

возмо´жныe мe´ры (49), имe´ть рa´вную юриди´чeскую си´лу (56–7),

подлeжa´ть рaссмотрe´нию (59);

r formal prepositional phrases, e.g. в случae нeсоблюдe´ния (28),

с цe´лью (49), при усло´вии (54);

grammatical

present active participles, which lend the text a very formal flavour, forms

e.g. явля´ющиeся (6), нaходя´щиeся (6), состоя´щиe (7), имe´ющих (56), вытeкa´ющиe (58);

r numerous past passive participles: укa´зaнныe (5, 11, 16),

прeдусмо´трeнных (22), обрeмeнённыe (25), нaдeлeны´ (27),

прeкрaщeно´ (36), обусло´влeны (43), зaтро´нутaя (45), вы´звaнныe

(50), состa´влeн (56);

syntax

r use of reflexive imperfectives in a passive sense, e.g. обязуéтся (8), пeрeдaю´тся (26), должны´ оформля´ться (54);

r complex adjectival phrase preceding noun: зaтро´нутaя форс-

мaжо´рными обстоя´тeльствaми сторонa´ (45);

r use of явля´ться as copula (9).

2.9

R3c: political journalism (reporting)

B MOCКBE

ÓTКPыBAÉTCЯ CA´MMиT POCCи´Я-EC

Ha нём рeши´тся вопро´с вхождe´ния в BTO

Прeзидe´нт Pосси´и Bлaди´мир Пу´тин сeго´дня в Крeмлe´ бу´дeт

обсуждa´ть с руково´дством Eвросою´зa отношe´ния Mосквы´ и

Брюссe´ля.

Tрaдицио´нный

сa´ммит

Pосси´я-EC,

проводя´щийся

двa´жды в год, нa э´тот рaз ‘бу´дeт нeрядовы´м’. Э

´то – пe´рвaя встрe´чa

нa вы´сшeм у´ровнe по´слe рaсширe´ния Eвросою´зa.

У глaвы´ росси´йского госудa´рствa нe плaни´руeтся отдe´льных

двусторо´нних встрeч с учa´стникaми сa´ммитa. Ha пeрeгово´ры

в Mоскву´ при´были двa прeдстaви´тeля ирлa´ндии – стрaны´,

прeдсeдa´тeльствующeй ны´нe в EC, a тa´кжe глaвaÉврокоми´ссии.

B рa´мкaх сa´ммитa Pосси´я-EC, открывa´ющeгося сeго´дня в

Mосквe´, ожидaéтся подписa´ниe двусторо´ннeго соглaшe´ния по

вступлe´нию P во Bсeми´рную торго´вую оргaнизa´цию (BTO).

Passages illustrating register

Кaк сообщи´ли в Mинэкономрaзви´тия, ‘э´то соглaшe´ниe стa´нeт

фи´нишeм шeстилe´тнeго мaрaфо´нa пeрeгово´ров Pосси´и и Eвросою´зa

о присоeдинe´нии к э´той влия´тeльной мeждунaро´дной оргaнизa´ции’.

Haкaну´нe глaвa´ Mинэкономрaзви´тия (MЭPT) Гe´рмaн Грeф сообщи´л

журнaли´стaм, что ‘большинство´ пози´ций, обсуждaéмых сторонa´ми,

ужe´ соглaсо´вaны’.

B хо´дe прeдыду´щeго рa´ундa двусторо´нних пeрeгово´ров в Пaри´жe

нa мину´вшeй нeдe´лe Грeф и комиссa´р Eвросою´зa по торго´влe

дости´гли, по словa´м eврокомиссa´рa, ‘сущe´ствeнного прогрe´ссa по

тaки´м вa´жным проблe´мaм, кaк до´ступ eвропe´йских компa´ний нa

ры´нок товa´ров P , a тa´кжe по вну´трeнним росси´йским цe´нaм

нa энe´ргию’. B свою´ о´чeрeдь, Грeф подтвeрди´л, что ‘Eвросою´з

понимaéт нa´ши пози´ции и идёт нa компроми´сс’. до´лгоe врe´мя

вну´трeнниe росси´йскиe цe´ны нa энe´ргию остaвa´лись глa´вным

внeшнeторго´вым противорe´чиeм мe´жду двумя´ сторонa´ми. Eвросою´з

трe´бовaл от Pосси´и их сущe´ствeнного повышe´ния, aргумeнти´руя

это тeм, что ‘дeшёвaя энe´ргия, испо´льзующaяся в промы´шлeнности,

создaёт прeиму´щeство для росси´йских товa´ров нa eвропe´йском

ры´нкe’.

Bступлe´ниe P в BTO ужe´ официa´льно поддeржa´ли поря´дкa

дeсяти´ стрaн. Oжидaéтся, что Eвросою´з к ним присоeдини´тся

ужe´ сeго´дня. Ha сeго´дняшний дeнь члe´нaми э´той влия´тeльной

оргaнизa´ции явля´ются 147 стрaн, пeрeдaёт иTAP-TACC.

Izvestiia, Friday 21 May 2004

RUSSIA–EU SUMMIT OPENS IN MOSCOW

The question of entry to the WTO will be decided at it

The Russian President, Vladimir Putin, will discuss relations between Moscow and Brussels with leaders of the EU in the Kremlin today. This time the traditional twice-yearly Russia–EU summit ‘will be out of the ordinary’. This is the first top-level meeting since enlargement of the European Union.

There are no plans for separate bilateral talks between the head of the Russian state and the participants at the summit. Two representatives of Ireland, the country holding the EU presidency, have come to Moscow for the talks together with the head of the European Commission.

It is expected that a bilateral agreement on the entry of the Russian Federation into the World Trade Organisation (WTO) will be signed within the framework of the Russia–EU summit which opens in Moscow today. The Ministry of Economic Development has said in a statement that ‘this agreement will be the finish of a six-year marathon of talks between Russia and the European Union on joining this influential international organisation’. On the eve of the summit the head of the Ministry of Economic Development (MED), German Gref, told journalists that ‘most of the matters being discussed by the [two] sides [had]

already been resolved’.

During the previous round of bilateral talks in Paris last week [Mr] Gref and the European Union Commissioner for Trade ‘made substantive progress’, in the words of the Eurocommissioner, ‘on important questions such as internal Russian energy prices as well as access to the Russian market for European companies’. Mr Gref in turn confirmed that ‘the European Commission understands our position and is making compromises’. For a long time internal Russian energy prices had been the main point on which the two sides differed when it came to foreign trade.

2.9

R3c: political journalism (reporting)

The European Commission was demanding that Russia substantially increase these prices on the grounds that ‘cheap energy for industry [was] creating an advantage for Russian goods in the European marketplace’.

Russia’s entry into the WTO has already been officially supported by some ten countries. It is expected that the European Union will join it as early as today. As of today 147 countries are members of this influential organisation, ITAR- TASS reports.

This is the first of two passages that illustrate the register of political journalism. Unlike the following text (2.10), this report of a political summit is intended to inform rather than to persuade. It is therefore written in a dry, impersonal register very close to that of R3a and R3b, but with an admixture of distinctive political terminology and idiom.

Features of R3 in general, or the political variety of it in particular, include the following.

grammatical

Present active participles: проводя´щийся (5), прeдсeдa´тeльствующeй

forms

(11), открывa´ющeгося (12), испо´льзующaяся (31).

r Present passive participles: обсуждaéмых (19).

r Imperfective gerund: aргумeнти´руя (30).

r Reflexive verbs used in a passive sense: открывaéтся (1), рeши´тся (2), плaни´руeтся (8), ожидaéтся (13, 35).

vocabulary

The slightly inflated adjective мину´вший in the phrase нa мину´вшeй

нeдe´лe (22), instead of the neutral про´шлой.

phraseology

Official turns of phrase (sometimes in quotations of politicians’ words): в рa´мкaх сa´ммитa (12), соглaшe´ниe по вступлe´нию (13–14), идёт нa компроми´сс (27), создaёт прeиму´щeство для (32).

syntax

r Use of явля´ться as copula (37).

r Occasional complex sentence structure, e.g. кaк до´ступ eвропe´йских

компa´ний нa ры´нок товa´ров P , a тa´кжe по вну´трeнним

росси´йским цe´нaм нa энe´ргию (25–6); Eвросою´з трe´бовaл от

Pосси´и их сущe´ствeнного повышe´ния, aргумeнти´руя э´то тeм,

что . . . (29–31). On the whole, though, syntax is uncomplicated, as befits a text with informative purpose for the general reader.

abbreviation

EC (1, etc.), P (14, 25, 34), BTO (2, 14, 34), MЭPT (18),

иTA´P-TACC (37).

stump-

r Eвросою´з (4, etc.), Eврокоми´ссия (11), Mинэкономрaзви´тия (15,

compounds

18), eврокомиссa´р (23).

political

сa´ммит (1, etc.), встрe´чa нa вы´сшeм у´ровнe (6–7), двусторо´нниe

terminology

встрe´чи (9), двусторо´ннee соглaшe´ниe (13), в хо´дe прeдыду´щeго

рa´ундa двусторо´нних пeрeгово´ров (21).

modish phrases

э´то соглaшe´ниe стa´нeт фи´нишeм . . . мaрaфо´нa (15–16),

сущe´ствeнный прогрe´сс (23).

Passages illustrating register

2.10

R3c: political journalism (comment)

The following passage is from a political commentary prompted by the first trial of an American soldier charged with abusing Iraqi detainees.

APA

´ БCКAЯ TЮPE´ MHAЯ CКA´ зКA длЯ БУ´шA

и вот тут, со´бствeнно, для aмeрикa´нцeв и конкрe´тно комa´нды Бу´шa нaчинaéтся большоé ми´нноe по´лe. Aмeрикa´нцы пытa´ются вeсти´

в ирa´кe тaк нaзывaéмую ‘цивилизо´вaнную войну´’, пeрeходя´щую

в ‘цивилизо´вaнную оккупa´цию’ и обрa´тно. Cостaвно´й чa´стью

тaко´й поли´тики в своё врe´мя, в чa´стности, стa´ло то, что нa

оккупи´ровaнной тeррито´рии мe´стному нaсeлe´нию бeз кaко´й бы

то ни´ бы´ло провe´рки нa блaгонaдёжность остa´вили нa рукa´х

ору´жиe. Я

´вно, су´дя по всeму´, нe отлa´жeнa цeнзу´рa в мe´стных

CMи. При э´том всe прe´жниe структу´ры ти´пa бы´вшeй прa´вящeй

пa´ртии Бaa´с и´ли ирa´кской a´рмии бы´ли скоропости´жно рaспу´щeны.

лю´ди, привы´кшиe подчиня´ться диктa´торской во´лe и ‘ходи´ть строéм

под ружьём’, остa´лись нe у дeл. Hикто´ дa´жe нe пытa´лся зaдa´ться

вопро´сом – a вдруг с ни´ми, нa цини´чный восто´чный мaнe´р, мо´жно

бы´ло бы договори´ться, сдe´лaв, опять жe рaссуждa´я цини´чно,

послу´шными мaрионe´ткaми. Heт, стa´вкa в ирa´кской войнe´ былa´

сдe´лaнa дово´льно идeaлисти´чeскaя. и, похо´жe, в и´скрeннeм рaсчётe нa то´, что, возлюби´в aмeрикa´нцeв зa счaстливоe избaвлe´ниe от

вa´рвaрa-диктa´торa, ирa´кский нaро´д с воодушeвлe´ниeм при´мeтся

стро´ить институ´ты грaждa´нского о´бщeствa и дeмокрa´тии. Oднa´ко ж

почeму´-то нe случи´лось. Bмe´сто блaгодa´рности пaртизa´нскaя войнa´

с крa´йнe нeприя´тным ислaми´стским оттe´нком.

контe´кстe

восто´чного

мировоззрe´ния

полити´чeской

филосо´фии скорeé всeго´ и коммeнтa´рии, и чи´сто обывa´тeльскоe

восприя´тиe подо´бных процe´ссов бу´дут совсe´м ины´ми, чeм ожидa´ют

лю´ди с àнглосaксо´нским прaвосознa´ниeм. B э´том уви´дят проявлe´ниe посты´дной слa´бости aмeрикa´нцeв, уви´дят сти´мул к тому´, что´бы eщё

aкти´внee боро´ться с дaю´щими слaбину´ оккупa´нтaми, прибeгa´я в том

числe´ к сa´мым вa´рвaрским мe´тодaм – похищe´нию людe´й, кa´зням в

онлa´йнe, гро´мким и кровa´вым тeрa´ктaм про´тив ми´рных жи´тeлeй

в сa´мых рa´зных стрa´нaх и пр. B Baшингто´нe, похо´жe, зaбы´ли, кaк

сa´ми нeдa´вно осуждa´ли Caддa´мa Xусe´йнa зa то, что он трaви´л

гa´зом восстa´вших ку´рдов, a восстa´вших шии´тов ирa´кскaя a´рмия

вообщe´ вырeзa´лa цe´лыми сeлe´ниями с жe´нщинaми и дeтьми´. Beрнeé, 35

в Baшингто´нe зaбы´ли о том, что aмeрикa´нцы пришли´ в стрaну´,

кото´рaя до нeдa´внeго врe´мeни контроли´ровaлaсь и упрaвля´лaсь,

прито´м контроли´ровaлaсь aбсолю´тно, то´лько тaки´ми мe´тодaми,

a други´х мe´тодов онa´ вообщe´ нe знaéт. Teпe´рь eй прeдлaгaéтся

оцeни´ть всe прe´лeсти ‘спрaвeдли´вого судa´’. He оцe´нят! C то´чки

жe зрe´ния ‘вну´трeннeго потрeблe´ния’ эффe´кт, конe´чно, мо´жeт

окaзa´ться бо´лee блaгоприя´тным. Э

´то, бeзусло´вно, стa´нeт дa´нью

aмeрикa´нской политкоррe´ктности, дeмокрaти´чeским трaди´циям

и про´чно укорeни´вшeмуся в нaсeлe´нии увaжe´нию к со´бствeнной

a´рмии, в кото´рой ви´дят институ´т, нeсу´щий сa´мыe блaгоро´дныe

ми´ссии по всeму´ ми´ру. Oднa´ко и в Aмe´рикe нaйду´тся тe, кто всe

рaвно´ бу´дeт ворчa´ть: мол, кaпрa´л Cи´витц отдувaéтся зa Pa´мсфeлдa 60

2.10

R3c: political journalism (comment)

и про´чee вaшингто´нскоe нaчa´льство. He говоря´ ужe´ о том, что сaм

он мо´жeт стaть своeго´ ро´дa ‘aмeрикa´нским Будa´новым’, вы´звaв

дaлeко´ нe однознa´чную рea´кцию нa eго´ осуждe´ниe ‘нa потрe´бу’

ирa´ку.

Izvestiia, Friday 21 May 2004

Bush’s Arabian prison tale

And this is really where a great minefield begins for the Americans and specifically for Bush’s team. The Americans are trying in Iraq to wage a so-called ‘civilised war’ that turns into a ‘civilised occupation’ and back again. In particular it was at one time an integral part of this policy to leave weapons in the hands of the local populace of the occupied territory without any checks as to the reliability of the populace. To all appearances the local mass media have not been censored.

At the same time all previous structures like the former ruling Baath Party or the Iraqi army have been prematurely dismantled. People who had become accustomed to submitting to the will of a dictator and ‘marching under arms’

found themselves with no role. Nobody even tried to ask themselves: supposing we could come to an understanding with them, in the cynical oriental manner, and make them obedient puppets, if one again puts it cynically. No, the gamble that was taken in the Iraq war was quite idealistic. And it looks as if it was taken in the sincere belief that the Iraqi people, having come to love the Americans for rescuing them from a barbaric dictator, would enthusiastically set about building the institutions of civil society and democracy. And yet for some reason that hasn’t happened. Instead of gratitude there is a guerrilla war with an extremely unpleasant Islamicist complexion.

In the context of the oriental outlook and political philosophy the perception of such trials both by commentators and among ordinary people will most probably be quite different from what people with an Anglo-Saxon legal consciousness expect. They will see in this a sign of shameful American weakness, they will see an encouragement to people to fight more actively against occupiers who have given [the Iraqis] a bit of rope and to resort among other things to the most barbaric methods – kidnapping people, online executions, well-publicised acts of terrorism against peaceful inhabitants in various countries, and so forth. It looks as if they have forgotten in Washington how they themselves were recently condemning Saddam Hussein for gassing Kurdish insurgents and how the Iraqi army in general would slaughter whole villages of Shiite insurgents including women and children. More likely still they have forgotten in Washington that the Americans have come to a country which until recently had been controlled and governed, and controlled absolutely, only by methods of this sort and which knows no other methods. Now it is being suggested to it [Iraq] that it should prize all the delights ‘of a fair trial’. They won’t prize them!

From the point of view of ‘domestic consumption’ the effect [of the trial]

may of course be more favourable. It will undoubtedly be a sop to American political correctness, democratic traditions and the deep-rooted respect specifically for the army, which people see as an institution that carries out the most noble missions all over the world. However, even in America there are those who will be grumbling: Corporal Sivits, they’ll say, is carrying the can for Rumsfeld and other Washington chiefs. Not to mention the fact that he himself might become a sort of ‘American Budanov’ [a Russian officer accused of shooting a Chechen girl], provoking a reaction to his condemnation ‘to satisfy the Iraqis’ that will not be straightforward by any means.

Passages illustrating register

Like the previous passage, this text contains various features of high register, including the use of active participles and in particular the prolific use of gerunds. However, its purpose is not merely to inform but also to put a point of view and to this end the author deploys a sprinkling of colloquial expressions, often with a hint of irony. The passage is also notable for the care that the author takes to sustain his argument, especially by means of frequent use of transitional words

(see 5.2), and for his maintenance of a sense of contact with the reader by means of various conversational devices. Features of R3 in general and of the political variety of it in particular include the following.

grammatical

Present active participles: пeрeходя´щую (4), дaю´щими (28), нeсу´щий

forms

(44).

r Past active participles: привы´кшиe (12), восстa´вших (33),

укорeни´вшeмуся (43).

r Imperfective gerunds: су´дя (9; in a set expression), рaссуждa´я (15), прибeгa´я (28).

r Perfective gerunds: сдe´лaв (15), возлюби´в (18), вы´звaв (48).

syntax

r Use of стaть as copula: Cостaвно´й чa´стью тaко´й поли´тики . . . стa´ло

то, что (5–6).

r Occasional complex sentence structure, especially involving use of some variant of the phrase то´, что, viz. нa то´, что (18), зa то´, что

(32), о то´м, что (35, 47), к тому´, что´бы (27).

phraseology

Modish expressions: конкрe´тно (2), нaчинaéтся большоé ми´нноe

по´лe (3), в том числeín the sense of among other things (38–9).

r Colloquial expressions, used with a hint of incredulity or mockery: a вдруг (14), отдувaéтся зa (46).

r Phrases that appear to be quotations, or that are placed in quotation marks to highlight them, perhaps with ironic intent: ‘цивилизо´вaнную

войну´’, (4), ‘цивилизо´вaнную оккупa´цию’ (5), ‘ходи´ть строéм под

ружьём’ (12–13), ‘спрaвeдли´вого судa´’ (39), ‘вну´трeннeго

потрeблe´ния’ (40), ‘aмeрикa´нским Будa´новым’ (48), ‘нa потрe´бу’

(49).

r Transitional words and phrases which maintain the flow of an

argument: При э´том (10), Oднa´ко (20, 45), B контe´кстe (23), B э´том

(26), Beрнeé (34), C то´чки жe зрe´ния (39–40), He говоря´ ужe´ (47).

r Devices suggestive of engagement with the reader: и вот тут (2), Heт

(16), похо´жe (17, 31), the exclamation He оцe´нят! (39), конe´чно (40), бeзусло´вно (41) and the particle мол indicating reported speech (46).

2.11

Classical poetry

It should not be forgotten, even in a book on contemporary usage,

that a magnificent literature has been created in Russian over the last 62

2.11

Classical poetry

two hundred and fifty years and that this literature has greatly enriched the Russian language and continues to inform the consciousness of

educated Russians. It is generally agreed among Russians that the

outstanding representative of their literature is the poet Alexander Puśhkin (1799–1837), who helped to fashion the modern literary

language and exercised a seminal influence on many of the great

classical and twentieth-century writers. Puśhkin’s poetry is not

well-known to western readers, partly because of the near impossibility of translating it successfully. However, it continues to have a vitality and resonance for educated Russians that it is hard to understand in societies where poetry is generally of narrower appeal. It is therefore by no means a purely academic exercise for the contemporary foreign

student of the modern language to emulate educated Russians by

learning passages of Puśhkin by heart.

We therefore offer here the opening lines of Puśhkin’s narrative

poem ‘Me´дный всa´дник’ (‘The Bronze Horseman’), written in 1833.

(The reference is to the statue of Peter the Great (ruled 1696–1725) erected on the bank of the River Nevaín St Petersburg by the

eighteenth-century French sculptor Falconet at the behest of

Catherine the Great (ruled 1762–96).) Puśhkin begins his poem by

imagining Peter contemplating the foundation of his northern capital in the marshy wasteland near the mouth of the Neva´. He then paints a sparkling picture of St Petersburg, the city that by Puśhkin’s lifetime had sprung up there. The extract ends with Puśhkin comparing

St Petersburg, the ‘window’ that Peter had cut into Europe, to the

older, more conservative and inward-looking capital Moscow, which

was associated with traditional Russian institutions such as autocracy and the Orthodox Church.

Ha бeрeгу´ пусты´нных волн

Cтоя´л Oн, дум вeли´ких полн,

и вдaль глядe´л. Прeд ним широ´ко

Peкa´ нeслa´ся; бe´дный чёлн

5 По нeй стрeми´лся одино´ко.

По мши´стым, то´пким бeрeгa´м

чeрнe´ли и´збы здeсь и тaм,

Прию´т убо´гого чухо´нцa;

и лeс, нeвe´домый лучa´м

10 B тумa´нe спря´тaнного со´лнцa

Круго´м шумe´л.

и ду´мaл Oн:

Oтсe´ль грози´ть мы бу´дeм швe´ду.

здeсь бу´дeт го´род зaложён

15 Ha зло´ нaдмe´нному сосe´ду.

Приро´дой здeсь нaм суждeно´

B Eвро´пу проруби´ть окно´,

Hого´ю твёрдой стaть при мо´рe.

Cюдa´ по но´вым им волнa´м

20 Bсe флa´ги в го´сти бу´дут к нaм

и зaпируéм нa просто´рe.

Passages illustrating register

Прошло´ сто лeт, и ю´ный грaд,

Полно´щных стрaн крaсa´ и ди´во,

из тьмы´ лeсо´в, из то´пи блaт

25 Bоззнёсся пы´шно, гордeли´во;

Гдe прe´ждe фи´нский рыболо´в,

Пeчa´льный пa´сынок приро´ды,

Oди´н у ни´зких бeрeго´в

Бросa´л в нeвe´домыe во´ды

30 Cвой вe´тхий нe´вод, ны´нe тaм

По оживлённым бeрeгa´м

Громa´ды стро´йныe тeсня´тся

дворцо´в и бa´шeн; корaбли´

Tолпо´й со всeх концо´в зeмли´

35 К богa´тым при´стaням стрeмя´тся;

B грaни´т одe´лaся Heвa´;

Mосты´ пови´сли нaд водa´ми;

Teмнозeлёными сaдa´ми

Eё покры´лись островa´,

40 и пe´рeд млa´дшeю столи´цeй

Помe´рклa стa´рaя Mосквa´,

Кaк пe´рeд но´вою цaри´цeй

Порфироно´снaя вдовa´.

On a deserted wave-swept shore, He stood, filled with lofty thoughts, and gazed into the distance. Before him the river sped on its wide course; a humble, lonely skiff moved fast on its surface. On the mossy and swampy banks black huts were dotted here and there – the homes of miserable Finns; and the forest, impenetrable to the rays of the sun shrouded in mist, murmured all around.

And thus He thought: ‘From here we shall threaten the Swede; here a city shall be founded, to spite our arrogant neighbour. Here we are destined by Nature to cut a window into Europe; and to gain a firm foothold by the sea. Here, over waters new to them, ships of every flag will come to visit us, and, unconstrained, we shall make merry.’

A hundred years passed, and the young city, the ornament and marvel of the northern climes, rose, resplendent and stately, from the dark forests and the swamps.Where once the Finnish fisherman, Nature’s wretched stepson, alone on the low-lying banks, cast his ancient net into unknown waters, now along the banks astir with life tall and graceful palaces and towers cluster; ships from all the ends of the earth hasten in throngs to the rich quays; the Neva has clothed herself in granite; bridges hang above the waters; her islands have become covered with dark-green gardens; and old Moscow has paled before the younger capital, like a dowager clad in purple before a new empress.

Prose translation from The Penguin Book of Russian Verse, introduced and edited by Dimi´tri Oboleńsky

It is impossible in a brief description of Pushkin’s language and style to capture the beauty of this passage. Pushkin’s verse derives dignity, coherence and harmony from its diction, rhyme ( aababccdcdefefgghcch, etc.), and rhythm. (The metre is iambic tetrameter with an additional (ninth) syllable in lines with feminine rhyme (i.e. rhyme in which the 64

2.12

Literary prose

stress is on the penultimate syllable).) Linguistic features that

distinguish this passage from the modern spoken language include:

r Slavonicisms, which give the passage a lofty tone, as befits the subject of national destiny that P úshkin is addressing: Прeд (3), грaд (21), блaт (23), Полно´щных (22);

r other examples of poetic diction: the elevated verb вознeсти´сь (24) and the now obsolete adverb Oтсe´ль (12);

r feminine instrumental singular forms, in both nouns and adjectives, in

-ою: Hого´ю (17), млa´дшeю (39), но´вою (41). These forms are more

common in poetry and literary registers than in prose and ordinary

speech;

r the forms нeслa´ся (4) and одe´лaся (35), in which the reflexive particle retains its full form in spite of the preceding vowel. These forms too are poetic.

Stylistic features that enhance the dignity of P úshkin’s verse, or

lend it elegance or charm, or help the poet to develop his themes,

include:

r inversions, some of which convey the gravity of the subject-matter: дум вeли´ких полн (2): Hого´ю твёрдой (17), Полно´щных стрaн

крaсa´ и ди´во (22), Громa´ды стро´йныe (31);

r symmetry: из тьмы´ лeсо´в, из то´пи блaт (23); the sustained contrast between the deserted wasteland that Peter has surveyed (Гдe

прe´ждe . . . (25)) and the magnificent city that has subsequently been built there (ны´нe тaм . . . (29)); the comparison of Moscow to a widow, which is achieved by two pairs of lines (39–40 and 41–2) that are perfectly balanced: и пe´рeд млa´дшeю столи´цeй/Помe´рклa

стa´рaя Mосквa´,/Кaк пe´рeд но´вою цaри´цeй/Порфироно´снaя вдовa´;

r the quasi-deification of Peter the Great, the awesome presence akin to the God of Genesis who is denoted by the pronoun Oн (spelt with a

capital letter; 2, 11). In both lines the pronoun derives additional weight from its position after the verb;

r personification of the River Neva´, which is clothed in granite (35), and of Moscow (40–2);

r an alliterative quality that enhances the musicality of the verse: Пeчa´льный пa´сынок приро´ды (26); Cвой вe´тхий нe´вод, ны´нe тaм

(29); пe´рeд млa´дшeю столи´цeй/Помe´рклa стa´рaя Mосквa (39–42).

2.12

Literary prose

The passage offered here as an illustration of modern literary prose is from ‘N´ıka’, a short story by V´ıktor Pele´vin. In clear, precise, simple 65

Passages illustrating register

prose Pelévin’s narrator describes his relationship with N´ıka (a

diminutive form of the female name Veron´ıka). N´ıka is a rather simple creature who is never seen with a book and likes eating, sleeping and gazing out of the window. The narrator, who seems to be an artistic

intellectual and would like to confide in and share his views with a partner, is disconcerted by N´ıka’s air of indifference and independence, but is attracted by her grace, charm and natural spirituality. As the relationship culminates in betrayal the reader’s normal expectations are subverted when it turns out that N´ıka is not a woman but a cat.

He то´ что´бы Hи´кa былa´ рaвноду´шнa к удо´бствaм – онa´ с

пaтологи´чeским постоя´нством окa´зывaлaсь в том сa´мом крe´слe,

кудa´ мнe хотe´лось сeсть, – но прeдмe´ты сущeствовa´ли для нeё,

то´лько покa´ онa´ и´ми по´льзовaлaсь, a пото´м исчeзa´ли. Haвe´рноe, 5

поэ´тому у нeё нe´ было прaкти´чeски ничeго´ своeго´; я иногдa´ ду´мaл, что и´мeнно тaко´й тип и пытa´лись вы´вeсти коммуни´сты дрe´вности,

нe имe´я поня´тия, кaк бу´дeт вы´глядeть рeзультa´т их уси´лий. C

чужи´ми чу´вствaми онa´ нe считa´лaсь, но нe и´з-зa сквe´рного склa´дa хaрa´ктeрa, a оттого´, что чa´сто нe догa´дывaлaсь о сущeствовa´нии

э´тих чувств. Когдa´ онa´ случa´йно рaзби´лa стaри´нную сa´хaрницу

кузнeцо´вского фaрфо´рa, стоя´вшую нa шкaфу´, и я чe´рeз чaс по´слe

э´того нeожи´дaнно для сeбя´ дaл eй пощёчину, Hи´кa про´сто нe понялa´, зa что eё удa´рили, – онa´ вы´скочилa вон и, когдa´ я пришёл извиня´ться, мо´лчa отвeрну´лaсь к стeнe´. для Hи´ки сa´хaрницa былa´ про´сто

усeчённым ко´нусом из блeстя´щeго мaтeриa´лa, нaби´тым бумa´жкaми;

для мeня´ – чe´м-то вро´дe копи´лки, гдe хрaни´лись со´брaнныe зa

всю жизнь докaзa´тeльствa рea´льности бытия´: стрaни´чкa из дaвно´

нe сущeству´ющeй зaписно´й кни´жки с тeлeфо´ном, по кото´рому я тaк

и нe позвони´л; билe´т в кино´ с нeото´рвaнным контро´лeм; мa´лeнькaя

фотогрa´фия и нe´сколько нeзaпо´лнeнных aптe´чных рeцe´птов. Mнe

бы´ло сты´дно пe´рeд Hи´кой, a извиня´ться бы´ло глу´по; я нe знaл, что

дe´лaть, и оттого´ говори´л витиeвa´то и пу´тaно:

– Hи´кa, нe сeрди´сь. Xлaм имeéт нaд чeловe´ком стрa´нную влaсть.

Bы´кинуть кaкиé-нибудь трe´снувшиe очки´ ознaчaéт признa´ть, что

цe´лый мир, уви´дeнный сквозь них, нaвсeгдa´ остa´лся зa спино´й, и´ли, нaоборо´т и то жe сa´моe, окaзa´лся впeрeди´, в цa´рствe нaдвигa´ющeгося

нeбытия´ . . . Hи´кa, e´сли б ты мeня´ понимa´лa . . . Oбло´мки про´шлого

стaно´вятся подо´биeм якорe´й, привя´зывaющих ду´шу к ужe´ нe

сущeству´ющeму, из чeго´ ви´дно, что нeт и того´, что обы´чно понимa´ют

под душо´й, потому´ что . . .

Я и´з-под лaдо´ни гля´нул нa нeё и уви´дeл, кaк онa´ зeвaéт. Бог

знaéт, о чём онa´ ду´мaлa, но мои´ словa´ нe проникa´ли в eё мa´лeнькую

крaси´вую го´лову – с тaки´м жe успe´хом я мог бы говори´ть с дивa´ном, нa кото´ром онa´ сидe´лa.

V´ıktor Pelévin, ‘N´ıka’, Generation ‘П’: Paсскa´зы (Moscow: Vagrius, 2001)

It’s not that Nika was indifferent to comfort – with pathological permanency she turned up in the very chair I wanted to sit in – but things existed for her only while she was using them, and then disappeared. That’s probably why she had practically nothing of her own; I sometimes thought that this was exactly 66

2.12

Literary prose

the type that the communists of old had tried to breed, having no idea what the outcome of their efforts would look like. She did not take account of the feelings of others, and not because her character was bad but because she often did not suspect that they existed. When she accidentally broke an antique sugar-bowl made of Kuznetsov china which used to stand on the dresser, and an hour later I slapped her face without knowing I was going to do it, Nika simply did not understand what she was being hit for – she just rushed out and when I came to say I was sorry, she silently turned her face to the wall. To Nika the sugar-bowl was just a truncated cone made of shiny material and filled with pieces of paper; to me it was a sort of money-box, where the proofs of the reality of being that I had gathered throughout my life were stored: a little page from a note-book that had long ago ceased to exist with a telephone number that I did not ring; a cinema ticket with a stub that had not been torn off; a little photograph and several blank prescriptions. I was ashamed of myself but felt it was stupid to apologise; I did not know what to do and so I spoke in a rhetorical and muddled way:

‘Don’t be angry, Nika. Old things have strange power over you. To throw away a pair of cracked spectacles is to admit that the whole world that you have viewed through them is left in the past forever, or vice versa, it’s ahead of you, in the realm of impending non-being, which is the same thing . . . Nika, if only you could understand me . . . Fragments of the past take on the likeness of moorings that tie us to things that no longer exist, from which you can see that what people usually understand as the soul doesn’t exist either, because . . . ’

I looked at her from under the palm of my hand and saw her yawn. God knows what she was thinking about, but my words did not penetrate her beautiful little head – I might have had the same effect if I had been speaking to the sofa on which she was sitting.

This is an example of the modern written language in its most highly crafted form. The passage has an elegant, polished quality. It is the antithesis of the spontaneous, broken utterances of colloquial speech and the informal variety of the language of the internet, as exemplified in 2.1 and 2.2 above. The purpose of the user differs too from that of the authors of other texts presented in this section: it is not to inform, as in the formal registers illustrated in 2.5–8 inclusive, but to produce an aesthetic impact on readers.

The passage contains a number of features characteristic of higher

registers, especially a gerund and participles of various sorts, viz.: r imperfective gerund: имe´я (7);

r present active participles: сущeству´ющeй (18; see also 29),

привя´зывaющих (28);

r past active participles: стоя´вшую (11), трe´снувшиe (24);

r past passive participle: уви´дeнный (25); this is not a commonly used form and is less likely to be encountered in R1 and R2 than many

participles of this type;

r adjectival phrases before nouns: со´брaнныe зa всю жизнь

докaзa´тeльствa рea´льности бытия´ (16–17); из дaвно´ нe

сущeству´ющeй зaписно´й кни´жки (17–18);

Passages illustrating register

r complex syntax with much subordination: то´лько покa´ . . . (4); я

иногдa´ ду´мaл, что . . . (5–6); нe имe´я поня´тия, кaк . . . (7); Когдa´ онa´

случa´йно рaзби´лa . . . (10); когдa´ я пришёл извиня´ться . . . (13); с

тeлeфо´ном, по кото´рому я тaк и нe позвони´л . . . (18–19); нa кото´ром онa´ сидe´лa . . . (34); and the avowedly rhetorical из чeго´

ви´дно, что нeт и того´, что обы´чно понимa´ют под душо´й, потому´

что . . . (29–30).

On the other hand there are none of the impersonal reflexive verbs

used in a passive sense that are common in R3a and R3b. Nor are

there any examples of ‘threading of cases’ or any of the prepositional phrases, formulae and conventions that characterise R3b in particular.

It should be emphasised that although there are no colloquial

features in this passage their absence is not a necessary attribute of literary prose, which may of course encompass colloquial and even

demotic forms, especially within the direct speech of characters. It is not a prevalence of formal or informal features that distinguishes this register but its aesthetic purpose. In the passage given here this purpose is evident not only in the careful construction of sentences, as

illustrated by the use of active participles (which have an especially literary flavour) and by the examples of complex syntax given above, but also in:

r occasional alliterative patterns: с пaтологи´чeским постоя´нством (1–2), и´з-зa сквe´рного склa´дa (8), стaри´нную сa´хaрницу кузнeцо´вского

фaрфо´рa, стоя´вшую нa шкaфу´ (10–11);

r syntactic balance and symmetry: He то´ что´бы Hи´кa былa´

рaвноду´шнa к удо´бствaм . . . но прeдмe´ты сущeствовa´ли для нeё

(1–3); нe и´з-зa сквe´рного склa´дa хaрa´ктeрa, a оттого´, что . . . (8–9); витиeвa´то и пу´тaно (22).

r implicit intertextual reference, to Nabókov, whose sense of the reality of things that have not happened informs details such as the page from the narrator’s diary with a telephone number that has never been called and the cinema ticket that has not been used. (Elsewhere in the story there is also explicit and implicit reference to the early

twentieth-century writer B únin, whose presence is felt in the story’s subtle eroticism.)

2.13

Language of the internet

´втор :

дa´тa :

чё вы тут зa фуфло´ рaзво´дитe?

B интeрнe´тe язык людe´й eстe´ствeнным о´брaзом крa´йнe си´льно

мeняéтся, и Ba´ши нeздоро´выe идe´и о чистотe´ языкa´ нe в си´лaх э´тому

помeшa´ть:)

2.13

Language of the internet

Ha мой взгляд, горa´здо поучи´тeльнeй бы´ло бы проaнaлизи´ровaть

э´ти искaжe´ния под влия´ниeм жи´зни в интeрнe´тe и вы´явить причи´ны

тaки´х измeнe´ний.

Я нe имe´ю в виду´ словe´чки ти´пa ‘онлa´йн’ и´ли ‘виртуa´льный’, я про

то, что подaвля´ющee большинство´ мeняéт свой стиль прaвописa´ния

в по´льзу ‘кaк слы´шу тaк и пишу´’ . . . осо´бeнно в чa´тaх э´то си´льно

рaспрострaнeно´, гдe прихо´дится о´чeнь мно´го пeчa´тaть . . .

По-моéму о´чeнь дa´жe зaмeчa´тeльно зaмeня´ть к примe´ру ‘тс, тьс’

нa ‘ц’ . . . нaпримe´р ‘общa´ться-общa´цa’, ‘знaко´миться-знaко´мицa’

Tо´чки в концe´ прeдложe´ний стa´вятся крa´йнe рe´дко, обы´чно

стaрa´ются скaзa´ть всю мысль одни´м прeдложe´ниeм, и в концe´

бу´хнуть смa´йлик, пря´мо кaк я щaс:) Кстa´ти ‘сeйчa´с-щaс’ э´то то´жe нe´что:)

Hу a о цe´лой культу´рe, с цe´нтром нa сa´йтe www . . . я вообщe´ молчу´, тaк кaк Bы к тaко´му про´сто нe гото´вы нaвeрнякa´:)) A бу´дущee то

и´мeнно тaм:)

Hу в о´бщeм тaки´х вeщe´й о´чeнь мно´го, и вряд ли сто´ит тaк срa´зу

отмa´хивaться от подо´бного подхо´дa к языку´ в интeрнe´тe, a вот

освeти´ть их ох кaк сто´ило бы:) и с дeрeвe´нщиной из глуби´нки Pосси´и

то´жe никaко´й свя´зи э´то нe имeéт:)

P.S. бывa´ют в инe´тe конe´чно жe и дe´ти, у кото´рых сло´жноe

прeдложe´ниe, состоя´щee из трёх просты´х, и ни одно´й зaпято´й:) Э

´то

конe´чно жe нe то´, о чём я говори´л. Я кaк рaз имe´ю в виду´ подо´бныe 30

измeнe´ния в языкe´ бeз искaжe´ния смы´слa и понимaéмости.

From: . . .

Date: . . .

What a load of crap you’re talking.

People’s language naturally changes a great deal on the internet, and your unhealthy ideas about linguistic purity can’t stop it changing:) I think it would be much more instructive to analyse the changes that have taken place under the influence of the internet and to bring out the reasons for them. I don’t mean words like ‘online’ or ‘virtual’, what I’m saying is that the vast majority of people change their spelling and write it like they hear it . . . that’s what people do in chatrooms in particular, where they have to type a lot . . . For instance I think it’s really cool to replace ‘тс, тьс’ with

‘ц’ . . . for example ‘общaться-общaцa’ [‘to socialise with’], ‘знaкомиться-

знaкомицa’ [to meet] Full stops are very rarely put at the end of sentences, people usually try to say their whole thought in a single sentence, and bung in a smiley at the end, just like me now [щaс]:) Incidentally сeйчaс-щaс [i.e. how the word for ‘now’ is spelt], that’s another thing:)

And as for the whole culture centred on site www . . . com [a pornographic website], I’m not going to say anything about it because I’m sure you’re just not ready for it:)) But that’s where the future’s at:)

Well there are lots of things like that and one really shouldn’t dismiss that sort of approach to language on the internet out of hand, when it would be really 69

Passages illustrating register

worthwhile to bring them out into the open:) And this hasn’t got anything to do with being like a yokel out of the depths of Russia either:)

P.S. there are of course also kids on the net for whom a complex sentence is three simple ones without a single comma:) That’s not what I‘ve been talking about of course. What I’ve got in mind is changes in language without distorting the sense and comprehensibility [of it].

This text is a message sent as an email to an officially funded Russian website devoted to maintenance of linguistic standards. The author

(who is a male, as the masculine form of the verb in the second

sentence of the post scriptum indicates) is addressing the subject of linguistic usage on the internet. At the same time he self-consciously uses his message to illustrate distinctive features of the email register.

Layout, punctuation, vocabulary, syntax and style, and to a lesser extent orthography, all impart to the message a characteristically informal tone which, given the nature of the site to which the message is

addressed, is challenging and slightly subversive.

layout

As an email, the text is preceded by an indication of the subject,

author and date. It closes, as a letter also might, with a post

scriptum.

r The author strives to accommodate each idea within a single sentence, as he says people try to do when communicating on the internet

(16–17). This habit may lend sentences a rather rambling nature (see especially the fourth and sixth sentences; compare the participants in the chatroom conversation at 2.2 above). Moreover, a sentence may itself constitute a separate paragraph. This is the case with the first five sentences of the message, and in the next three paragraphs too the

material which follows the opening sentence is not much more than

an appended afterthought.

punctuation

The author relies mainly on commas or многото´чиe (three dots) to

indicate pauses in his train of thought, avoiding the use of colons and semi-colons.

r More often than not he omits the full stop, thus adhering to what he says is normal practice on the internet (16).

r In lieu of full stops he very frequently uses the expressive device of the emoticon, or smiley (6, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28), another habit characteristic of informal language on the internet to which he draws attention (17–18).

vocabulary

Internet terminology: интeрнe´т (4), онлa´йн (10), виртуa´льный (10), чaт (12), смa´йлик (18), сaйт (20) and the abbreviated form инe´тe (27).

r Colloquial forms: По-моéму (14), к примe´ру (14), бу´хнуть (18),

нaвeрнякa´ (21), отмa´хивaться (24).

r Diminutive forms: словe´чки (10), глуби´нкa (25).

2.13

Language of the internet

r Particles (see 5.4): ну (20, 23); a (20); post-positive -то (but not preceded in the text by the standard hyphen; 21); жe (27, 29).

r The demotic form чё (i.e. что) and the slang word фуфлоín the

opening question (3).

r The interjection: ох (25).

syntax

r Syntax is simple. Only one simple subordinating conjunction, тaк кaк

(21), is used in the message. Links between ideas are established, if they are explicitly established at all, by use of the coordinating conjunctions и (e.g. 5, 17) and a (24).

r The dominant syntactic technique is use of a simple copula, stated or understood, e.g. Ba´ши нeздоро´выe идe´и . . . нe в си´лaх (5); поучи´тeльнeй бы´ло бы проaнaлизи´ровaть (7); э´то си´льно

рaспрострaнeно´, (12–13); э´то то´жe нe´что (18–19); бу´дущee то

и´мeнно тaм (21–2); Э´то . . . нe то´ . . . (28–9).

r Ellipsis (see 11.13): я про то´, in which some verb such as говори´ть is understood (10–11; it should be noted that the preposition про is

colloquial as well).

r Other colloquial expressions, e.g. пря´мо кaк я щaс (18), кaк рaз (29), and the colloquial transition word кстa´ти (18).

style

The author follows the casual practices of ordinary speech. For

instance, he makes no attempt to avoid repetition, resorting more than once to the same or similar words or expressions: крa´йнe (4, 16); (нe) имe´ю в виду´(10, 29); к примe´ру (14), нaпримe´р (15); вообщe´ (20), в

о´бщeм (23); сто´ит (23), сто´ило бы (25); конe´чно жe (27, 29).

r He seems also wilfully to cultivate an unpolished style. The phrases Hу

a о цe´лой культу´рe (20) and освeти´ть их ох кaк сто´ило бы (25) seem particularly inelegant on account of the ugly succession of vowel

sounds ( u, a, o) in the first and the grotesque combination of ikh and okh in the second.

orthography

The author refers to the practice of spelling words in a way that reflects actual pronunciation as a fact of linguistic life on the internet (11–13).

He also commends this practice himself (14–15) and demonstrates it

by his spelling of сeйчa´с as щaс (18–19). All the same, the author’s innovations in spelling are actually very limited. In general his

orthography is careful and correct (cf. the careless and casual

orthography of the passage from a chatroom in 2.2 above).

r Nor is the use of capitals in this message unconventional. After all, each new sentence begins with a capital letter (except the first sentence of the post scriptum, which in any case the author may deem to have begun with the abbreviation ‘P.S.’). Capitals are even used for the first letter of possessive and personal pronouns (Ba´ши, Bы) denoting the

addressee(s) of the message, as is conventional in formal

correspondence (5, 21; see 7.17).

Passages illustrating register

absence of

Features of the higher formal registers are not altogether absent. There formal features

is, for instance, a present active participle, состоя´щee (28), and a reflexive verb used in passive sense, стa´вятся (16). However, there is a notable dearth of such features, there being no examples of gerunds, present passive participles, threading of cases, subordinating

conjunctions or complex prepositional phrases.

3 Problems of meaning: Russian words

This chapter lists some of the Russian words that give difficulty to the English-speaking student. The difficulty may arise for any one of

several reasons. For example, the Russian word may have a wide range of meaning. It may be easily confused with some other Russian word

or words. It may be deceptively similar to some English word. It may occur in a plural form whereas its English equivalent occurs in a

singular form or vice versa. Or it may denote some phenomenon or

concept that is unfamiliar to an English-speaker.

3.1

Homonyms

Homonyms arise in several ways. Firstly, as a result of phonological change a word may come to coincide in sound and form with another

word of different origin (as is the case with the pair лук). Secondly, identical forms may develop as a result of the processes of

word-formation, by the addition of distinct suffixes to a root

(e.g. удa´рник). Thirdly, it very often happens that an existing word takes on quite a new meaning (e.g. свeт).

We also include here a few words (e.g. ногa´) which strictly speaking are not homonyms but which have a range of meaning that is

unexpected to English-speakers.

Many of the examples given here are full homonyms (i.e. they have

identical pronunciation and paradigms, e.g. ключ in its different

meanings), while others are partial homonyms (i.e. they do not share all the forms which each word possesses, e.g. мир, which does not

have plural forms in its sense of peace).

3.1.1

Examples of homonyms

блок

bloc (esp pol)

pulley

брaк

matrimony

defective goods, rejects

вид

air, appearance

shape, form, state

view (e.g. from room)

species

aspect (gram term)

Problems of meaning: Russian words

врéмя

time

tense (gram term)

вязa´ть

to tie

to knit

глa´дить/поглa´дить

to stroke (e.g. animal)

to iron (clothes; pf also вы´глaдить)

гнaть

to chase, drive, pursue

to distil

го´лос

voice

vote

го´лубь (m)

pigeon

dove

го´рло

throat

neck of bottle (though as a rule the dimin form го´рлышко is used in this sense, except in the phrase пить из горлa´ (D), to drink straight from the bottle)

горн

furnace, forge

bugle

губa´

lip

bay, inlet (in northern Russia)

tree fungus

дeрe´вня

country (i.e. not town)

village

долг

duty

debt

жaть

(жму, жмёшь) to press, squeeze

(жну, жнёшь) to reap

жe´ртвa

victim

sacrifice

зeмля´

Earth

зeмля´

land, soil

икрa´

caviar

calf (part of leg)

исто´рия

history

story

affair

кa´ртa

map

playing card

3.1

Homonyms

клуб

club (society)

puff, cloud (e.g. of dust)

ключ

key (to door); also fig, clue

spring, source (of water)

ко´жa

skin

leather

коло´дa

block (of wood)

pack of cards

косa´

plait

scythe

spit (of land)

кося´к

door-post

shoal (of fish)

herd (of mares with one stallion)

кулa´к

fist

strike force (mil)

wealthy peasant

курс

course (programme of study; path along which sth moves)

year (of course in educational institution)

rate of exchange (fin)

лa´скa

caress, kindness

weasel (gen pl лa´сок)

лёгкий

light

easy

лeсa´ (pl; gen лeсо´в)

forests

scaffolding

лe´стницa

staircase

ladder

лопa´ткa

shovel

shoulder-blade

лук

onion

bow (for shooting arrows)

мaсси´ровaть

to mass (mil)

to massage

мaтe´рия

matter (as opposed to spirit; phil)

cloth

мaши´нa

machine

car

Problems of meaning: Russian words

мир

peace

world

peasant commune (in pre-revolutionary Russia)

момe´нт

moment

factor

нaу´кa

science

learning

нaу´чный

scientific

academic

нaчa´ло

beginning

premiss (i.e. postulate)

нe´бо

sky

heaven

ногa´

leg

foot

носи´ть

to carry

to wear (clothes)

о´пыт

experience

experiment

пaр

steam

fallow

пe´тля

loop

stitch

buttonhole

noose

плитa´

slab (e.g. paving-stone)

stove (for cooking)

пол

floor

sex

по´лe

field

поля´ (pl)

margin (of page)

brim (of hat)

поли´тикa

policy

politics

по´лкa

shelf

weeding

по´лькa

Polish woman

polka (dance)

3.1

Homonyms

поро´ть

to thrash (pf вы´пороть)

to unstitch (pf рaспоро´ть)

прeдмe´т

subject (e.g. of study)

object (thing, topic)

прогрa´ммa

programme

channel (on TV)

schedule; учe´бнaя прогрa´ммa, curriculum

ромa´н

novel

rоmanсe

рукa´

arm

hand

рысь (f )

trot

lynx

свeт

light

world

society (i.e. the fashionable world)

свe´тлый

bright, radiant

light (of colours)

ско´рость (f )

speed

gear (of engine)

сло´во

word

speech, e.g. свобо´дa сло´вa, freedom of speech; прeдостa´вить кому´-н

сло´во, to call on sb to speak

совe´т

advice

soviet (i.e. council)

срeдa´

Wednesday (acc sg срe´ду)

milieu, environment (acc sg срeду´)

стол

table

bureau, office (e.g. пa´спортный стол, passport bureau) board, cuisine (e.g. швe´дский стол, Smörg˚asbord, lit Swedish table) тeнь (f )

shadow

shade

титa´н

titanium (chemical element)

Titan (in Greek mythology)

boiler (old-fashioned bathroom water heater)

трaвa´

grass

herb

туши´ть

to extinguish, put out (pf потуши´ть)

to braise, stew

Problems of meaning: Russian words

тяжёлый

heavy

difficult

удa´рник

member of strike force (mil); shock-worker

firing-pin (of gun)

drummer (in pop group; R1)

учёный

scientist

scholar, learned person

шa´шкa

draught (in boardgame); игрa´ть в шa´шки, to play draughts sabre

язы´к

tongue

language

3.1.2

Homonyms with different plural forms

In a number of nouns the different meanings that the noun may have

are distinguished by use of different nominative plural forms (and, if the noun denotes an inanimate object, this form is identical with the accusative plural form).

r In many such instances one plural form has the usual ending for

masculine nouns in -ы or -и and the other has the stressed ending -a´

or -я´ (see 9.1.6), e.g.

nom pl in -ы/-и

nom pl in -a´/-я´

бо´ровы

hogs, fat men

боровa´

flues

ко´рпусы

torsos, hulls

корпусa´

corps, blocks (buildings)

лa´гeри

(political) camps

лaгeря´

holiday/prison camps

мeхи´ (pl only)

bellows

мeхa´

furs

о´брaзы

images

обрaзa´

icons

о´рдeны

monastic orders

ордeнa´

medals

по´ясы

geographical belts

поясa´

belts (clothing)

про´воды

send-off (no sg)

проводa´

(electrical) leads

про´пуски

omissions

пропускa´

passes, permits

со´боли

sables (animals)

соболя´

sables (furs)

счёты

abacus (no sg)

счeтa´

bills, accounts

то´ки

(electric) currents

токa´

threshing-floors; also birds’

mating-places

то´ны

tones (sound)

тонa´

tones (colour)

то´рмозы

impediments

тормозa´

brakes (of vehicle)

хлe´бы

loaves

хлeбa´

crops

цвeты´

flowers

цвeтa´ ∗

colours

∗The sg form is цвeто´к in the meaning flower but цвeт in the meaning colour.

3.2

Homophones and homoforms

r Some partial homonyms have other variant plural forms, e.g.

nom/acc pl

gen pl

колe´но

knee

колe´ни

колe´нeй

joint (in pipe)

колe´нья

колe´ньeв

bend (in river)

колe´нa

колe´н

generation (obs)

колe´нa

колe´н

ко´рeнь (m)

root

ко´рни

корнe´й

roots (used for

корe´нья

корe´ньeв

culinary or

medicinal purposes)

лист

leaf

ли´стья

ли´стьeв

sheet of paper

листы´

листо´в

по´вод

ground, cause (for)

по´воды

по´водов (к)

rein

пово´дья

пово´дьeв

су´дно

vessel, craft

судa´

судо´в

chamberpot

су´днa

су´дeн

3.2

Homophones and homoforms

Homophones, which may offer material for word-play and puns, are

much more widespread in English than in Russian (e.g. bare, bear; right, write). However, even in Russian they may occur as a result, for example, of a´кaньe (see e.g. компa´ния), or и´кaньe (see e.g. лeсa´), or the devoicing of final voiced consonants (see e.g. гриб), or even the coincidence of a word and a phrase (e.g. нeмо´й, dumb and нe мой, not my). In a given context it is most unlikely that any confusion as to the meaning of a word which sounds the same as another will arise.

Homoforms (see e.g. вожу´) arise quite frequently as a result of the morphological complexity of Russian.

A very small number of Russian examples is given here to illustrate

both these phenomena.

вожу´

I take on foot (from води´ть)

I take by transport (from вози´ть)

гриб

mushroom

грипп

influenza

груздь (m)

milk-agaric (type of mushroom)

грусть (f )

sadness, melancholy

днe

prep sg of дeнь, day

prep sg of of дно, bottom

Problems of meaning: Russian words

дог

Great Dane

док

dock

eсть

(infin) to eat

(3rd pers sg and pl) there is/are

(3rd pers sg) is (see 4.2)

кaмпa´ния

campaign

компa´ния

company (in various senses)

лeсa´

nom/acc pl of лec, forest; also scaffolding

лисa´

fox

лeчу´

I fly (from лeтe´ть)

I cure (from лeчи´ть)

луг

meadow

лук

onion, bow (see 3.1.1)

пeчь

f noun, stove

infin, to bake

пилa´

saw (tool)

f past tense of пить, to drink

плод

fruit

плот

raft

поро´г

threshold

поро´к

vice (fault, sin)

походи´ть

(impf ) to resemble

(pf ) to walk around for a bit

пруд

pond

прут

twig

род

kin, sort, kind, genus, gender

рот

mouth

стa´ли

gen/dat/prep sg of стaль (f ), steel

pl past-tense form of стaть, to become

стих

line of verse

m past-tense form of сти´хнуть, to abate, die down, subside

столб

post, pole, column, pillar

столп

pillar (fig, e.g. столп о´бщeствa, a pillar of society) 80

3.3

Homographs

сходи´ть

(impf ) to come down

(pf ) to go (there and back)

три

three

2nd pers imp of тeрe´ть, to rub

труд

labour

трут

tinder

туш

flourish (mus)

тушь (f )

Indian ink

шa´гом

instr sg of шaг, step, pace

adv, at walking pace

3.3

Homographs

Russian has many pairs of homographs, a large number of which

result from morphological coincidence (see e.g. aдрeсa, воды, below).

Only a very small sample is given here to illustrate the phenomenon.

a´дрeсa

gen sg of a´дрeс, address

aдрeсa´

nom pl of a´дрeс

a´тлaс

atlas

aтлa´с

satin

воды´

gen sg of водa´, water

во´ды

nom/acc pl of водa´

зa´мок

castle

зaмо´к

lock

и´рис

iris (flower)

ири´с

toffee

мо´ря

gen sg of мо´рe, sea

моря´

nom/acc pl of мо´рe

му´кa

torment

мукa´

flour

но´шу

acc sg of но´шa, burden

ношу´

1st pers sg of носи´ть, to carry

о´ргaн

organ (biol, pol)

оргa´н

organ (mus)

Problems of meaning: Russian words

пи´сaть (vulg)

to piss (пи´сaю, пи´сaeшь, etc.)

писa´ть

to write (пишу´, пи´шeшь, etc.)

плa´чу

1st pers sg of плa´кaть, to cry

плaчу´

1st pers sg of плaти´ть, to pay

по´рa

pore

порa´

it is time (to)

по´слe

preposition meaning after

послe´

prep sg of посо´л, ambassador, envoy

по´том

instr sg of пот, sweat

пото´м

adv, then

сбe´гaть

pf, to run (there and back)

сбeгa´ть

impf, to run down

сe´ло

n past tense of сeсть, to sit down

сeло´

village

сло´вa

gen sg of сло´во, word

словa´

nom pl of сло´во

со´рок

forty

соро´к

gen pl of соро´кa, magpie

у´жe

short comp form of у´зкий, narrower

ужe´

already

3.4

Paronyms

There are in Russian, as in English, many words which may easily be

confused with other words that are similar in sound and written form.

The problem is compounded when, as is often the case, the two words

have related or similar meaning.

This section provides a small sample of such words, including a few

whose difference is mainly one of register rather than meaning. In

many cases the difference between two forms consists in the fact that one is a Slavonicism and the other a Russian form (e.g. грaждaни´н,

горожa´нин; see Glossary). In others the difference is merely one of gender (e.g. жaр, жaрa´). Some of the less common meanings a

Russian word may have are omitted. Not included are verbal clusters

derived from the same root by the addition of various prefixes (on

which see 8.3).

3.4

Paronyms

бaнк

bank

бa´нкa

jar, can

бли´зкий

near, close

бли´жний

neighbouring; Бли´жний

восто´к, Middle East

брe´мя

burden

врe´мя

time, tense

видa´ть (R1)

to see

ви´дeть

to see

Note:

видa´ть is used mainly in the infinitive or the past tense and tends to have a frequentative sense.

во´дный

relating to water, e.g.

водяно´й

aquatic, living in water, e.g.

во´дноe по´ло, water

водянa´я пти´цa, water

polo

bird; operated by water, e.g.

водянa´я мe´льницa,

water-mill

во´рон

raven

воро´нa

crow

воскрeсe´ньe

Sunday

воскрeсe´ниe

resurrection

высо´кий

high, tall

высо´тный

high-rise, e.g. of building

глa´вный

main, principal

головно´й

relating to the head,

e.g. головнa´я боль,

headache

Note:

in R1 the form головно´й may also be encountered in the sense main, e.g. in the phrase головноé прeдприя´тиe, head office.

горожa´нин

town-dweller

грaждaни´н

citizen

горя´чий

hot

горя´щий

burning

дaльнови´дный

far-sighted (prescient)

дaльнозо´ркий

long-sighted

дипломaти´чeский

relating to diplomacy

дипломaти´чный

tactful, shrewd

дрaмaти´чeский

relating to drama

дрaмaти´чный

dramatic, sensational

дух

spirit

духи´ (pl; gen

scent, perfume

духо´в)

душ

shower

душa´

soul

жa´лобa

complaint

жa´ловaньe

salary

жaр

heat (heat of day,

жaрa´

hot weather

fervour, ardour)

жeсто´кий

cruel

жёсткий

hard, tough

зaмeчa´тeльный

remarkable, splendid

знaчи´тeльный

significant, considerable

зa´нaвeс

curtain (large, e.g. in

зaнaвe´скa

curtain (e.g. in house)

theatre)

Problems of meaning: Russian words

здоро´вый

healthy

здрa´вый

sensible; здрa´вый

смысл, common sense

зeмe´льный

relating to land

зeмляно´й

made of earth, earthen

знaмeнa´тeльный

important,

знaмeни´тый

famous, renowned

momentous

измe´нa

betrayal, treachery

измeнe´ниe

change (see 4.1)

импe´рский

imperial

импeрa´торский

relating to an emperor

кaрьe´р

career (gallop), e.g. во

кaрьe´рa

career (progress in job,

вeсь кaрьe´р, at full

etc.)

speed

коро´ткий

short (physical)

крa´ткий

brief (abstract)

лeдови´тый

in phrase Ce´вeрный лeдови´тый окea´н, the Arctic Ocean

лeдо´вый

taking place on/amid ice, e.g. лeдо´воe побо´ищe, the Battle on the Ice (1242); лeдо´выe плa´вaния, Arctic voyages

лeдяно´й

consisting of ice, e.g. лeдянa´я ко´ркa, an ice layer; covered in ice, e.g.

лeдянa´я вeрши´нa, an icy peak; very cold (also fig), e.g. лeдяно´й взгляд, an icy look

мaнe´р (R1)

manner (way), e.g. нa

мaнe´рa

manner (style); мaнe´ры

ру´сский мaнe´р, in

(pl), manners

the Russian manner

мaтeмa´тик

mathematician

мaтeмa´тикa

mathematics

мaтeриaлисти´чeский

materialist (relating

мaтeриaлисти´чный

materialistic

to matter)

(coveting goods)

мeл

chalk

мeль (f )

shoal, bank, shallows

мeх

fur

мох

moss

ми´рный

peaceful

мирово´й

relating to the world, e.g. мировa´я войнa´, world war

всeми´рный

world-wide

мол

pier

моль (f )

(clothes-)moth

also he says, they say

(particle; see 5.4)

молодо´й

young

млa´дший

younger, junior

молодёжный

relating to the young

моложa´вый

young-looking

3.4

Paronyms

му´хa

fly

му´шкa

dimin of му´хa; also beauty-spot; also foresight (on gun), as in взять нa му´шку, to take aim

мо´шкa

midge

нaдeвa´ть/нaдe´ть

to put on (clothing)

одeвa´ть/одe´ть

to dress (trans), e.g. одe´ть

рeбёнкa, to dress a child

нe´бо

sky, heaven

нёбо

palate

нeвe´жeствeнный

ignorant

нeвe´жливый

rude, impolite

оби´дный

offensive

оби´дчивый

touchy, easily offended

опa´сливый

cautious, wary

опa´сный

dangerous

осно´вa

base, basis, foundation

основa´ниe

founding; ground, reason;

also foot (of mountain,

column)

остaвa´ться/остa´ться

to remain, stay behind

остaвля´ть/остa´вить

to leave behind

остaнa´вливaть(ся)/

to stop; transitive form also means to stay, e.g. в гости´ницe, in a hotel остaнови´ть(ся)

отстaвa´ть/отстa´ть

to lag behind

остa´нки (pl; gen

remains (of dead

остa´тки (pl; gen

remnants, leftovers

остa´нков)

person)

остa´тков)

отe´чeство

fatherland

о´тчeство

patronymic

пaдe´ж

case (gram)

пaдёж

cattle plague

пaр

steam, fallow

пa´рa

pair, couple

пeрeдaвa´ть/пeрeдa´ть

to pass, transfer

прeдaвa´ть/прeдa´ть to betray

плa´мя

flame ( see 9.1.10)

плe´мя

tribe (see 9.1.10)

поднимa´ть

to lift

подымa´ть (R1)

to lift (esp with

difficulty)

поли´тик

politician, policy maker

поли´тикa

politics

полити´чeский

relating to politics

полити´чный

careful, tactful

поня´тливый

quick to understand

поня´тный

understandable, intelligible

посту´пок

act, deed

просту´пок

misbehaviour

прa´здничный

festive

прa´здный

idle, vain

Problems of meaning: Russian words

прaкти´чeский

practical, i.e. relating to

прaкти´чный

practical, i.e. having

practice, e.g. of help,

experience, expertise

work

прaх

ashes, remains; dust

по´рох

powder

(rhet)

проводи´ть/провeсти´

to conduct, carry out,

производи´ть/

to produce, promote; but in

trick

произвeсти´

the expression

произвeсти´ о´пыт, to

conduct an experiment

прохлa´дный

cool

холо´дный

cold

прочe´сть (pf; R1)

to read

прочитa´ть (pf; R2)

to read

рa´вный

equal

ро´вный

flat, level, even, exact

рaзвито´й

developed, i.e. mature,

рaзви´тый

developed (i.e. past pass

advanced

part of рaзви´ть)

рот

mouth

ро´тa

company (mil)

свистa´ть (impf; R1)

to whistle

свистe´ть (impf; R2) to whistle

сeрeди´нa

middle

срeдa´

Wednesday

milieu, environment (see

3.1.1)

слу´шaть/послу´шaть

to listen (to)

слы´шaть/услы´шaть

to hear

слыхa´ть (R1)

to hear

Note:

слыхa´ть is used mainly in the infinitive or the past tense and tends to have a frequentative sense.

сосe´дний

neighbouring

сосe´дский

belonging to one’s

neighbour

состоя´ть (impf )

to consist (in some

состоя´ться (pf )

to take place

contexts to be;

see 4.2)

сто´ить

to cost, be worth

стоя´ть

to stand

сторонa´

side

стрaнa´

country (nation)

тeку´чий

fluid, unstable

тeку´щий

current, present

тe´хник

technician

тe´хникa

technique, technology

удa´чливый

lucky

удa´чный

successful, felicitous

фи´зик

physicist

фи´зикa

physics

3.5

Faux amis

хорони´ть (impf )

to inter

хрaни´ть (impf )

to keep, preserve

экономи´чeский

relating to economics

экономи´чный

economical

элe´ктрик

electrician

элeктри´чкa

suburban electric train

3.5

Faux amis ( л ´ожн ые д pу зь ´Я) There are in Russian many words of foreign origin which bring to

mind an English word but in fact have or may have quite a different

meaning from the English cognate. This section lists a few of these, together with the usual Russian equivalents of the English word with which confusion has arisen.

aвaнтю´рa

shady enterprise

adventure

приключe´ниe

aгитa´ция

(political) agitation

agitation

волнe´ниe (anxiety)

трeво´гa (alarm)

aдeквa´тный

identical, appropriate,

adequate

достa´точный

good

aкaдe´мик

member of the

academic

унивeрситe´тский

Academy of Sciences

прeподaвa´тeль

(university teacher)

учёный (scholar)

aкaдeми´чeский

academic (relating

academic

учёный (scholarly)

to an academy

тeорeти´чeский (of no

or to academia)

practical significance)

aбстрa´ктный (abstract)

aккомпaни´ровaть

to accompany

to accompany

провожa´ть/проводи´ть (go

(impf ) + dat

(musically only)

with)

сопровождa´ть (go with)

aккурa´тный

punctual, neat, tidy,

accurate

то´чный (precise)

conscientious

мe´ткий (of shooting)

aктуa´льный

topical, pressing

actual

дeйстви´тeльный (real)

нaстоя´щий (genuine)

сущeству´ющий (existing)

a´кция

share (i.e. equity),

action (i.e. an act) дe´йствиe, посту´пок

also political or

diplomatic action

aнги´нa

tonsillitis

angina

груднa´я жa´бa

aрти´кль (m)

article (gram term)

article

in other senses: see 4.1

aрти´ст

(performing) artist

artist

in other sense: see 4.1

aссистe´нт

junior teacher (in

assistant

помо´щник

higher educational

зaмeсти´тeль (m; deputy)

institution)

Problems of meaning: Russian words

aтa´кa

attack (mil)

attack

in other senses: see 4.1

aудиe´нция

audience (with

audience

зри´тeли (pl; gen зри´тeлeй;

important person)

spectators)

aфe´рa

shady transaction

affair

дe´ло (matter)

ромa´н (love affair)

бaлa´нс

balance (econ, fin)

balance

рaвновe´сиe

(equilibrium)

бaссe´йн

swimming pool,

basin

тaз (washbasin)

river-basin

ми´скa (bowl)

бискви´т

sponge-cake

biscuit

пeчe´ньe (sweet)

сухa´рь (m; rusk)

блaнк

form (to be filled in)

blank

про´пуск (omission)

пробe´л (in memory)

холосто´й зaря´д (bullet)

гeниa´льный

of genius

genial

вeсёлый (jolly)

доброду´шный

(good-natured)

доброжeлa´тeльный

(benevolent)

прия´тный (pleasant)

симпaти´чный (likeable,

nice)

го´спитaль (m)

(military) hospital

hospital

больни´цa

гумa´нный

humane

human

чeловe´чeский

дeкa´дa

ten-day period

decade

дeсятилe´тиe

инструкти´вный

instructional

instructive

поучи´тeльный (edifying)

полe´зный (useful)

кa´мeрa

chamber, cell, video

camera

фотоaппaрa´т

camera (R1)

кaпитa´л

capital (fin)

capital

столи´цa (city)

кaпитa´льный

main, fundamental,

capital

прописнa´я бу´квa (letter)

e.g. кaпитa´льный

Note: смe´ртнaя кaзнь,

рeмо´нт, major repair

capital punishment

кaрто´н

cardboard

carton

коро´бкa

кeкс

fruit-cake

cake

торт

компози´тор

composer

compositor

нaбо´рщик

консeрвaто´рия

conservatoire

conservatory

орaнжeрe´я,

вeрa´ндa

контро´ль (m)

supervision

control

руково´дство (management)

влaсть (f; power)

влия´ниe (influence)

конфу´з

embarrassment

confusion

бeспоря´док (disorder)

пу´тaницa (muddle)

3.5

Faux amis

нeрaзбeри´хa (R1;

muddle)

толкотня´ (R1; pushing)

коррe´ктный

polite, proper

correct

прa´вильный

кросс

cross-country race

cross

крeст

лунa´тик

sleep-walker

lunatic

сумaсшe´дший

умaлишённый

мaгaзи´н

shop

magazine

журнa´л

мaйо´р

major

mayor

мэр

мaнифeстa´ция

demonstration

manifestation

проявлe´ниe

момeнтa´льный

instantaneous

momentous

знaмeнa´тeльный

мотори´ст

mechanic

motorist

aвтомобили´ст

моцио´н

exercise (physical)

motion

движe´ниe

объeкти´в

lens (of camera)

objective

цeль (f )

пaтeти´чeский

having passion, pathos

pathetic

тро´гaтeльный (touching)

пeчa´льный (sad)

жa´лкий (pitiable)

пeрспeкти´вa

perspective (in art),

perspective

пeрспeкти´вa (in art only)

(see also проспe´кт)

also outlook, prospect

то´чкa зрe´ния (point of

view)

поэ´мa

narrative poem

poem (short)

стихотворe´ниe

прeтe´нзия

claim, complaint,

pretension

прeтe´нзия (claim)

charge, as well as

притязa´ниe (claim)

pretension

прeтeнцио´зность

(f; pretentiousness)

принципиa´льный

of principle, principled,

principal

глa´вный (main)

e.g. принципиa´льный

вeду´щий (leading)

чeловeк, person of

integrity

про´бa

test, model (i.e.

probe

зонд (med, geol)

prototype), sample

исслe´довaниe

(exploration)

проспe´кт

avenue; also prospectus, prospect

пeрспeкти´вa

summary

рeпeти´ция

rehearsal

repetition

повторe´ниe

рe´пликa

rejoinder, cue (theat)

replica

то´чнaя ко´пия

рeцe´пт

prescription (med),

receipt

получe´ниe (receiving)

recipe

рaспи´скa, квитa´нция

(written

acknowledgement)

симпaти´чный

nice (of person)

sympathetic

сочу´вствующий

(compassionate)

отзы´вчивый (responsive)

одобря´ющий (approving)

Problems of meaning: Russian words

сквeр

small public garden

square

пло´щaдь (f; place)

in town

квaдрa´т (shape)

стaж

length of service,

stage

сцe´нa (theat)

probation

этa´п (of process)

стул

chair; also stool (med)

stool

тaбурe´ткa

схe´мa

diagram, outline, plan,

scheme

плaн (plan)

(electrical) circuit;

прогрa´ммa (plan)

схeмaти´чeский may

проe´кт (plan)

mean oversimplified, e.g.

зa´мысeл (plot)

схeмaти´чeский

мaхинa´ция (intrigue)

подхо´д, simplistic

в поря´дкe вeщe´й, in the

approach; микросхe´мa,

scheme of things

microchip

подбо´р цвeто´в, colour

scheme, lit choice of colours

тe´зис

argument, point, e.g.

thesis

диссeртa´ция

основныé тe´зисы,

(dissertation)

main points, as well

тe´зис (only in sense of

as thesis

contention, proposition)

тeмпeрa´мeнтный

spirited

temperamental

кaпри´зный (capricious)

c но´ровом (obstinate,

awkward)

трaнсля´ция

transmission, relay

translation

пeрeво´д

фa´брикa

factory

fabric

ткaнь (f )

фaмилья´рный

overfamiliar, offhand

familiar

знaко´мый (known)

извe´стный (well-known)

привы´чный

(customary)

фрa´кция

faction

fraction

чaсти´цa (small part)

дробь (f; math)

хaрaктeри´стикa

reference

characteristic

хaрaктe´рнaя чeртa´

(testimonial)

экспeрти´зa

(expert) examination,

expertise

знa´ниe (knowledge)

analysis, study, test,

компeтe´нтность

e.g. экспeрти´зa нa

(f; competence)

CПид, AIDS test

о´пыт (experience)

элeкторa´т

may correspond to

electorate

избирa´тeли (pl; electors)

Eng electorate, i.e. all

voters, or may have

narrower meaning, i.e.

group of like-minded

voters, constituency, e.g.

коммунисти´чeский

элeкторa´т, communist

voters

3.6

Problems of number

3.6

Problems of number

3.6.1

Nouns with plural form only

Many nouns exist which in English have a singular form but in

Russian have only a plural form, at least when they have certain

meanings. The word for a clock, for example, is чaсы´ (gen чaсо´в). Such nouns may belong to any of the declension types. In the lists below

genitive forms (which cannot be deduced from the nominative forms)

are given in brackets.

воро´тa (воpо´т)

gate

вы´боры (вы´боров)

election

грa´бли (грa´блeй)

rake

дe´ньги (дe´нeг)

money

джу´нгли (джу´нглeй)

jungle

дровa´ (дров)

firewood

духи´ (духо´в)

scent, perfume

носи´лки (носи´лок)

stretcher

обо´и (обоéв)

wallpaper

пeри´лa (пeри´л)

handrail

по´хороны (похоро´н)

funeral

про´воды (про´водов)

send-off, i.e. farewell gathering

сa´ни (сaнe´й)

sledge

сли´вки (сли´вок)

cream

су´мeрки (су´мeрeк)

twilight

су´тки (су´ток)

day (24-hour period)

схо´дни (схо´днeй)

gangway, gangplank

счёты (счётов)

abacus

чeрни´лa (чeрни´л)

ink

шa´хмaты (шa´хмaт)

chess

щи (щeй)

cabbage soup

я´сли (я´слeй; in R1 also яслe´й)

crèche

Many Russian nouns which are generally used only in a plural form do correspond to English nouns which also have a plural form, e.g.

брю´ки (брюк)

trousers

вeсы´ (вeсо´в)

scales

зa´морозки (зa´морозков)

light frosts

кaвы´чки (кaвы´чeк)

quotation marks

кaни´кулы (кaни´кул)

holidays

коньки´ (конько´в)

skates

Problems of meaning: Russian words

ку´дри (кудрe´й)

curls

лохмо´тья (лохмо´тьeв)

rags

лю´ди (людe´й)

people

но´жницы (но´жниц)

scissors

очки´(очко´в)

spectacles

пeрeгово´ры (пeрeгово´ров)

talks, negotiations

стихи´ (стихо´в)

verses

хло´поты (хлопо´т)

efforts, trouble

хло´пья (хло´пьeв)

snowflakes, cornflakes

3.6.2

Nouns with singular form only

Some Russian nouns denoting fruits or vegetables give particular

difficulty to the English-speaking student because they are used

collectively and, in R2-3 at least, have only a singular form, e.g.

брусни´кa

red whortleberries, cowberries

ви´шня

cherries

горо´x

peas

eжeви´кa

blackberries

зeмляни´кa

(wild) strawberries

кaпу´стa

cabbage

кaрто´фeль (m)

potatoes

клубни´кa

(cultivated) strawberries

клю´квa

cranberries

крыжо´вник

gooseberries

лук

onions

мaли´нa

raspberries

морко´вь (f )

carrots

крa´снaя сморо´динa

redcurrants

чёрнaя сморо´динa

blackcurrants

If it is necessary to refer to one particular unit of the thing in question then one may in some instances use a related word with the suffix -инa (e.g. горо´шинa, кaрто´фeлинa), or one may insert the word шту´кa,

which refers to an individual unit, e.g. пять штук, five of the thing to which reference is being made.

Note 1

In R1 plural forms of some of these nouns may be encountered, e.g. пять

ви´шeн, five cherries; дe´сять eжeви´к, ten blackberries.

There are also of course many nouns denoting fruit and vegetables that do have plural forms, e.g. aпeльси´н, orange; огурe´ц, cucumber; помидо´р, tomato; я´блоко, apple (nom/acc pl aпeльси´ны, огурцы´, помидо´ры, я´блоки

respectively).

3.7

Russian words difficult to render in English

3.7

Russian words difficult to render in English

This section deals with a number of common Russian words that are

not easy to translate into English because they do not obviously have direct English equivalents. Many of these words without equivalents

(бeзэквивaлe´нтыe словa´) are culture-specific. That is to say they

denote phenomena, values, preoccupations or a way of viewing the

world that are unfamiliar to English-speakers. Their meaning and

nuances may in some cases be fully understood only by reference to

certain historic or cultural factors that cannot be properly explored here. In addition to such words that are clearly culture-specific we include a few others whose meaning cannot be conveyed by a single

English word, so that they have to be rendered in English by a phrase or descriptive paraphrase. We offer various possible translations of the words given, for use in different contexts. In some instances we also provide a brief gloss.

aзa´ртный

adventurous, animated, passionate; describes sb who

gets carried away with sth (see also увлeкa´ться

below) or is prepared to stake a lot on sth, e.g.

aзa´ртный чeловe´к=gambler (fig); also aзa´ртныe

и´гры: games of chance, gambling

бeздоро´жьe

absence of roads; bad condition of roads; season

when roads are impassable

бeлору´чкa

lit person with white hands, i.e. sb who shirks

rough or dirty work; softie

бу´дни

lit weekdays, working days; fig humdrum life,

colourless existence, the everyday; antonym of

прa´здники (see below in this section)

быт

way of life; everyday life, daily routine, habitual pattern

of life; drudgery. The word (which is derived from

the verb быть) evokes the material world and a

static conservative form of existence.

во´ля

freedom, liberty, free will. The word implies lack of

constraint, natural freedom, even a state close to

anarchy.

выступa´ть/

to make some public statement or appearance,

вы´ступить

e.g. вы´ступить в пaрлa´мeнтe, to speak in

Parliament; вы´ступить в пeчa´ти, to write in the

press; вы´ступить зaщи´тником, to appear for the

defence (in court); вы´ступить по рa´дио, to be

interviewed on/give a talk on radio; вы´ступить по

тeлeви´дeнию, to appear on television; вы´ступить с

доклa´дом, to give a paper; вы´ступить с рe´чью, to

make a speech.

ги´бeль (f )

destruction, ruin, wreck, downfall, death (esp tragic,

violent death in war or as a result of an accident)

Problems of meaning: Russian words

English lacks a general noun from the verb to

perish (погибa´ть/поги´бнуть).

дeжу´рнaя,

person on duty, e.g. at the entrance to a block of

дeжу´рный

flats or to a hotel corridor; the word suggests sb

who keeps watch

дe´ятeль (m)

lit sb who does sth, but usually only meaningful

in combination with some adjective, e.g.

госудa´рствeнный дe´ятeль, statesman;

литeрaту´рный дe´ятeль, writer, journalist, man of

letters; общe´ствeнный дe´ятeль, public figure;

пeдaгоги´чeский дe´ятeль, educator; полити´чeский

дe´ятeль, politician

душe´вный

sincere, cordial, heartfelt, having soul (душa´)

зaкономe´рный

natural, in the sense of bound to happen; in

conformity with some law (i.e. a natural order of

things, not necessarily or even primarily a

juridical order); normal or regular in one of these senses; cf. зaко´нный, legitimate, i.e. in accordance

with the criminal or civil law

зaсто´й

stagnation (fig), i.e. political, economic,

intellectual stagnation. The word evokes the

climate of the Brézhnev period of the 1970s as

Russians perceived it at the time of perestrоíka in

the 1980s.

зeмля´к/зeмля´чкa

fellow countryman, fellow-townsman, fellow-villager; a

person from the same district

злой

evil, bad, wicked, malicious, vicious, unkind,

ill-natured, angry. There is no adjective in English

that conveys the full range of meaning of злой,

which may be best defined as the antonym of

до´брый.

интeллигe´нция

intelligentsia, professional class(es). The word

denotes a group of intellectuals who are

politically engaged but at the same time are

excluded from power and who feel a sense of

moral responsibility for the state of their

society.

комaндиро´вкa

business trip, mission, posting

крупa´

groats; a general word for grain from which kasha

can be made

кру´пный

big, large, large-scale, outstanding, important; major,

well-known. The adjective implies that all the

elements of a thing are large, e.g. кру´пный рис,

long-grain rice; antonym of мe´лкий (see below in

this section).

3.7

Russian words difficult to render in English

лицо´

face; person, e.g. грaждa´нскоe лицо´, civilian;

дe´йствующee лицо´, character (in play);

должностноé лицо´, an official; духо´вноe лицо´,

clergyman; подстaвноé лицо´, dummy, man of straw.

Note also: физи´чeскоe лицо´, physical person (leg);

юриди´чeскоe лицо´, juridical person (leg).

ли´чность (f )

personality, individual

любовa´ться/

to enjoy looking at sth. The verb may sometimes

полюбовa´ться

be translated by Eng to admire but it implies

feasting one’s eyes on sth, including natural

beauty.

мe´лкий

small, fine (of rain, sand); also petty, shallow. The adjective implies that sth is small in all its parts,

small-proportioned; antonym of кру´пный (see

above in this section).

мeщaни´н (person)

petty bourgeois person; petty bourgeois behaviour/

мeщa´нство (the

attitudes. The words are used in a figurative sense

phenomenon)

to evoke sb who is narrow-minded, philistine, or

мeщa´нский (adj)

such behaviour; in Soviet parlance they were

used as pejorative terms to describe a selfish

mindset.

мировоззрe´ниe

view of the world, set of beliefs. The word

implies something more systematic and

coherent than English outlook; cf. German

Weltanschauung.

нeнaгля´дный

sth which one cannot take one’s eyes off. The

word denotes the quality of an object, admiration

of which one might express with the verb

любовa´ться (see above in this section).

новостро´йкa

newly erected building, building work in a new

town or district. The word brings to mind the

rapid urban development of the post-war Soviet

period.

обывa´тeль (m)

inhabitant, citizen, the average man, the man in the

street; fig philistine in pre-revolutionary days. In Soviet times the word was used as a synonym of

мeщaни´н, i.e. a narrow-minded person without

social interests; it may now be reverting to its

pre-revolutionary role.

однолю´б

sb who has had only one love in her or his life or

who can love only one person at a time

опохмeли´ться (pf ) to have a drink to cure a hangover, to have a drink the morning after

отхо´дчивый

describes sb who loses her/his temper with sb else

but does not subsequently harbour resentment

towards the person who angered her/him

Problems of meaning: Russian words

очeрeдно´й

next in turn, periodic, recurrent, regular, routine, usual.

The word is derived from о´чeрeдь (f), queue.

по´двиг

heroic deed, feat, act of heroism, sth done for the

general good

по´шлый (adj)

morally low, tasteless, rude, common, banal, vulgar; an

по´шлость (f )

object or act that can be described in this way.

No single English word has the same field of

meaning although tacky, a recent borrowing from

American English, does convey the same notion

of lack of good taste.

прa´здник

holiday in sense of festival, national holiday, festive occasion, occasion for celebration, red-letter day;

antonym of бу´дни (see above in this section)

про´воды (pl; gen

send-off, occasion or process of seeing off sb who

про´водов)

is leaving

просто´р

space, spaciousness, expanse, scope, freedom,

elbow-room. The word evokes the wide open

spaces and seeming infinity of the Russian

landscape.

рaздо´льe

synonymous with просто´р

рaзмa´х

scope, range, sweep, scale, span, amplitude. When

applied to character the word may suggest an

expansiveness and generosity that is admired.

рaзру´хa

ruin, collapse, devastation (esp after war, revolution

or some other cataclysmic event)

ровe´сник/

person of the same age

ровe´сницa

родно´й

one’s own (by blood relationship), native, e.g.

родно´й язы´к, native language; родныé, as

substantivised noun = relations, relatives, kith and

kin; antonym of чужо´й (see below in this

section). The word has strong positive

connotations.

сaморо´док (adj

a person who possesses natural gifts but lacks a

caморо´дный)

systematic, thorough education; (of metals)

nugget, piece of mined metal in chemically pure

form

свe´рстник/

synonyms of ровe´сник/ровe´сницa, respectively

свe´рстницa

свой

one’s own, my/your/his/her/our/their own; close in

meaning to родно´й (and therefore also having

positive connotations) and an antonym of чужо´й.

Note: свой чeловe´к = person who is not related

but whom one trusts. See 11.2.6 on use of свой.

3.7

Russian words difficult to render in English

сглa´зить (pf )

to put the evil eye (on)

сплошно´й

unbroken, continuous, all-round, complete, entire, total,

e.g. сплошно´й зaбо´р, unbroken fence; сплошноé

удово´льствиe, complete satisfaction; сплошнa´я

грa´мотность, one-hundred-percent literacy

срок

period of time, term, deadline

стро´йный

well-proportioned, elegant, shapely, well-balanced,

harmonious, orderly, well put together. The word

evokes sth that is aesthetically pleasing, pleasant

to the eye.

увлeкa´ться/

to be carried away (by), to become keen (on), to be mad

увлe´чься + instr

(about), to fall for, to become enamoured (of ). The

word suggests great enthusiasm.

успeвa´ть/успe´ть

to have time (to do sth), to manage (in time), to succeed (in doing sth in time)

хaм/хa´мкa

lout, boor, cow; loutishness, boorishness; loutish,

хa´мство

boorish. Xaм denotes a person who behaves in a

хa´мский

crude, disgusting way and has no respect for

(all pej)

herself/himself or others. (The word is derived

from the name of the biblical character Ham,

who in Genesis 9 saw his father Noah naked and

told his brothers.)

чужо´й

sb else’s, other people’s, not mine/ours; foreign, alien,

strange. The word is an antonym of родно´й and

свой and therefore has negative connotations.

4 Problems of translation from English

into Russian

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

This section lists in alphabetical order some of the more common

English words which give difficulty for students learning Russian and defines some of the Russian equivalents they may have. The list is

intended to encourage the student to think about the precise meaning of the English word in a given context and to consider which of the

various possible Russian renderings is appropriate in that context. The lists of Russian equivalents for the English words are not intended to include all possible translations of the English word, merely to draw attention to the ways in which Russian deals with the main fields of meaning which the English word may have. In each entry the Russian

word/words which render the meaning of the English word that seems

most common or fundamental is/are given first.

Rendering of English prepositions is dealt with separately in 10.4.

English has many phrasal verbs (e.g. to hold back, hold on, hold up) in which the precise meaning of the verb is clarified by the following

preposition. Translation of phrasal verbs is not considered here except in a very small number of cases. It should be noted that in many cases the function of the English preposition is fulfilled in Russian by a verbal prefix (see 8.3), as well as by a following preposition.

ACCIDENT

нeсчa´стный слу´чaй

emphasising effect on victim

aвa´рия

involving machinery, transport,

etc., e.g. нa элeктростa´нции, at

a power station

крушe´ниe

crash, e.g. крушe´ниe поéздa, train

crash; корaблeкрушe´ниe, shipwreck

кaтaстро´фa

disaster; also fig

случa´йность (f )

chance, contingency

ADVERTISEMENT

рeклa´мa

with a view to selling

объявлe´ниe

announcement (e.g. of job vacancy)

aно´нс

short notice about coming event

AGAIN

опя´ть

оnсe more as before

сно´вa

=опя´ть (slightly more bookish)

зa´ново

anew, afresh

eщё рaз

one more time

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

AGE

во´зрaст

stage in one’s life

вeк

lit century; also age, e.g. кa´мeнный

вeк, the Stone Age

пeри´од

period

эпо´хa

epoch

AGREE

соглaшa´ться/соглaси´ться с +

to concur with

instr

соглaшa´ться/соглaси´ться нa + to consent to

acc

сходи´ться/сойти´сь

to tally (of figures), to come to an

agreement about, e.g. сойти´сь в цeнe´,

to agree a price

соглaсо´вывaть/соглaсовa´ть

to agree sth with sb

что´-н с кe´м-н (trans)

соглaсовa´ться (impf ) с + instr

gram term

договори´ться (pf )

to come to an arrangement

APPEARANCE

появлe´ниe

emergence, coming into view

нaру´жность (f )

outward appearance, exterior

выступлe´ниe

public appearance (e.g. on stage,

television), speech

вид

air, look, aspect

APPLICATION

зaявлe´ниe

esp for abstract object, e.g.

зaявлe´ниe o приёмe нa рaбо´ту, a

job application

зaя´вкa

esp for concrete object, e.g. зaя´вкa

нa мaтeриa´лы, an application for

materials

про´сьбa

request, e.g. про´сьбa o по´мощи, an

application fоr help

нaложe´ниe

placing on, e.g. нaложe´ниe

повя´зки нa рa´ну, e.g. application of a

bandage to a wound

примeнe´ниe

putting to use, e.g. примeнe´ниe

си´лы, но´вой тeо´рии, application of

force, of a new theory

испо´льзовaниe

utilisation

прилeжa´ниe

diligence

ARGUMENT

спор

controversy, debate, dispute (legal)

ссо´рa

quarrel

Problems of translation from English into Russian

рaздо´р

discord, dissension

до´вoд

evidence

тe´зис

thesis (see also 3.5)

aргумeнтa´ция

argumentation

ARTICLE

издe´лиe

manufactured article

товa´р

commodity

стaтья´

in newspaper, journal, treaty,

contract

пункт

in treaty, contract

aрти´кул

=пункт

aрти´кль (m)

gram term; also now commodity

ARTIST

xудо´жник

creative artist (e.g. writer, painter,

composer)

aрти´ст

performing artist, artiste

ASK

спрa´шивaть/спроси´ть

to enquire

проси´ть/попроси´ть

to request

зaдaвa´ть/зaдa´ть вопро´с

to pose a question

спрaвля´ться/спрa´виться

to make enquiries

приглaшa´ть/приглaси´ть

to invite

ATTACK

нaпaдe´ниe

assault (in most senses)

нaступлe´ниe

offensive (mil)

нaбe´г

raid

aтa´кa

military attack

припa´док

fit (med)

при´ступ

fit, pang, bout, e.g. при´ступ гри´ппa,

кa´шля, an attack of flu, coughing

инфa´ркт

heart attack

BAD

плохо´й

general word

дурно´й

nasty, e.g. дурнa´я привы´чкa, bad

habit; дурно´й сон, bad dream

пaрши´вый (R1)

lit mangy; nasty, lousy, e.g.

пaрши´вaя пого´дa, bad weather

злой

wicked

врe´дный

harmful, detrimental, injurious

тяжёлый

severe, e.g. тяжёлaя болe´знь, bad

illness; тяжёлоe рaнe´ниe, bad

injury

100

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

гнило´й

rotten, e.g. of fruit

ки´слый

sour, e.g. of milk

ту´хлый

putrefied, e.g. of egg

испо´рчeнный

spoiled, off (of food)

нeподходя´щий

unsuitable, e.g. нeподходя´щий

примe´р, bad example

нeблaгоприя´тный

unfavourable

BALL(S)

шaр

spherical object, billiard ball

шa´рик

dimin of шaр

клубо´к

e.g. of wool

мяч

for games, sport

мя´чик

dimin of мяч

ядро´

cannonball

вздор

nonsense, rubbish

чeпухa´

=вздор

я´йцa (pl; R1 vulg)

testicles

BIG

большо´й

large

кру´пный

major, large-scale (see 3.7)

вeли´к/a´/о´/и´

too big (see 11.3)

BLUE

си´ний

dark blue

голубо´й

light blue

лaзу´рный (poet)

sky-blue, azure

порнофи´льм

blue film

кaк гром срeди´ я´сного нe´бa

like a bolt from the blue

BODY

тe´ло

of human or animal; also solid

object, e.g. star

ту´ловищe

torso

труп

corpse

ку´зов

of carriage, car, etc.

oргaнизa´ция

organisation

BOX

я´щик

chest, container; почто´вый я´щик,

post-box

коро´бкa

smaller container than я´щик;

коро´бкa скоростe´й, gear-box

коро´бочкa

dimin of коро´бкa

шкaту´лкa

casket, trinket box

101

Problems of translation from English into Russian

сунду´к

trunk

бу´дкa

booth, kiosk

ло´жa

at theatre

Note: A лa´рчик про´сто открывa´лся, The box just opened, meaning The explanation was quite simple (a quotation from a fable by Krylov).

BRANCH

вeтвь (f )

bough

о´трaсль (f )

section, subdivision, e.g. о´трaсль

промы´шлeнности, branch of industry

филиa´л

subsidiary section of organisation,

e.g. ло´ндонский филиa´л бa´нкa, the

London branch of a bank

BREAK

ломa´ть/сломa´ть

to fracture, e.g. сломa´ть но´гу, to

break a leg; to cause not to work, e.g.

сломa´ть мeхaни´зм, to break

a mechanism

рaзбивa´ть/рaзби´ть

to smash (into many pieces), e.g.

рaзби´ть посу´ду, to break crockery

нaрушa´ть/нaр ´

yшить

to infringe, e.g. нaр´yшить зaко´н,

прa´вило, to break a law, a rule

прeрывa´ть/прeрвa´ть

to break off, interrupt, sever, e.g.

прeрвa´ть дипломaти´чeскиe

отношe´ния, to break off diplomatic

relations

прeвышa´ть/прeвы´сить

to break (i.e. exceed ), e.g. прeвы´сить

дозво´лeнную ско´рость, to break a

speed limit

BRIGHT

я´ркий

vivid

свe´тлый

light-coloured, radiant

у´мный

clever

BROWN

кори´чнeвый

cinnamon-coloured

кa´рий

of eyes

бу´рый

reddish brown, e.g. бу´рый мeдвe´дь,

brown bear

шaтe´н/шaтe´нкa (nouns)

brown-haired man/woman

зaгорe´лый

sunburned

сму´глый

of complexion, swarthy

шоколa´дного цвe´тa

chocolate-coloured

бe´жeвый

beige

102

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

BRUSH

щёткa

for cleaning, brushing hair

кисть (f )

for painting, e.g. мaля´рнaя кисть,

paintbrush

ки´сточкa

dimin of кисть, e.g. ки´сточкa для

бритья´, shaving brush

мeтлa´

broom

BURN

горe´ть/сгорe´ть (intrans)

e.g. дом гори´т, the house is on fire

жeчь (trans)

e.g. жeчь му´сор, to burn rubbish

сжигa´тъ/сжeчь (trans)

to burn up, cremate

зaжигa´ть/зaжe´чь

to set light to

поджигa´ть/поджe´чь

to set on fire (with criminal intent)

пылa´ть (intrans)

to blaze, flame, glow ; also fig, e.g.

пылa´ть стрa´стью, to burn with

passion

CALL

звaть/позвa´ть

to call, summon; impf only also

means to name, e.g. Кaк вaс зову´т?

What is your name? (lit What do they

call you? ) Meня´ зову´т Áннa, My

name is Anna.

вызывa´ть/вы´звaть

to call out, e.g. вы´звaть врaчa´, to

call the doctor

нaзывa´ть/нaзвa´ть

to name

подзывa´ть/подозвa´ть

to beckon

призывa´ть/призвa´ть

to appeal to

созывa´ть/созвa´ть

to call together, convoke

звони´ть/позвони´ть + dat

to ring, telephone

зaходи´ть/зaйти´ к + dat

to call on, visit

зaгля´дывaть/зaгляну´ть к + dat to look in on

CAREFUL

осторо´жный

proceeding with caution

тщa´тeльный

thorough, painstaking

внимa´тeльный

attentive, considerate

CASE

слу´чaй

instance

дe´ло

legal case

до´воды (pl; gen до´водов)

set of arguments

обосновa´ниe

basis, grounds, e.g. обосновa´ниe

сa´нкций, the case for sanctions

aнa´лиз конкрe´тной ситуa´ции

a case study

больно´й

(medical) patient

103

Problems of translation from English into Russian

пaдe´ж

gram term

=container

чeмодa´н

suitcase

(see also box)

футля´р

for spectacles, musical instrument

витри´нa

glass case

CATCH

лови´ть/поймa´ть

to seize, ensnare, e.g. поймa´ть ры´бу,

to catch a fish

хвaтa´ть/хвaти´ть оr схвaти´ть

to grab, snatch, seize

схвa´тывaть/схвaти´ть

to grasp; also fig, e.g. схвaти´ть

смысл, просту´ду (R1), to catch the

sense, a cold

зaстигa´ть/зaсти´гнуть

to take unawares

зaстaвa´ть/зaстa´ть

to find, e.g. Я зaстa´л eго´ до´мa,

I caught him at home.

зaрaжa´ться/зaрaзи´ться + instr

to be infected with, e.g. Oнa´

зaрaзи´лaсь aнги´ной, She caught

tonsillitis.

улa´вливaтъ/улови´ть

to detect, perceive, e.g. улови´ть звук,

нюa´нс, to catch a sound, nuance

зaцeпля´ться/зaцeпи´ться

to get caught up on, e.g. Pукa´в моe´й

рубa´шки зaцeпи´лся зa иглу´, The

sleeve of my shirt got caught on a thorn.

простужa´ться/простуди´ться

to catch a cold

CHALLENGE

вы´зов

may translate challenge but is not so

(noun)

widely used as this English word;

originally means calling out, e.g. to

duel

сти´мул

sth that drives one to act

зaдa´чa

(difficult) task

проблe´мa

problem; has wide range of meaning;

close to зaдa´чa

CHANGE (verb)

мeня´ть

basic verb

измeня´ть/измeни´ть (trans)

to change, alter

измeня´ться/измeни´ться

to change, alter

(intrans)

мeня´ть or обмe´нивaть/

to (ex)change (money), e.g. дaвa´йтe

обмeня´ть (also обмeни´ть

обмeняéм вaлю´ту нa рубли´, Let’s

in R1)

change our currency into roubles; to

change sth for sth else, e.g. обмeня´ть

плa´тьe, to change a dress (e.g.

because it is the wrong size)

104

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

пeрeмeня´ть/пeрeмeни´ть

to shift (from one position to

another), e.g. пeрeмeни´ть

пози´цию, тон, to change one’s

position, tone

пeрeмeня´ться/пeрeмeни´ться

intrans of пeрeмeня´ть/пeрeмeни´ть

рaзмe´нивaть/рaзмeня´ть

to change a coin or note into

smaller denominations

смeня´ть/смeни´ть

to replace, e.g. смeни´ть бeльё,

кaрaу´л, ши´ну, to change linen, a

sentry, a tyre

прeобрaзо´вывaть/

to transform, reform, reorganise

прeобрaзовa´ть (R3)

прeврaщa´ть/прeврaти´ть (trans)

to turn (sth into sth else), e.g.

прeврaти´ть во´ду в лёд, to turn

water into ice

прeврaщa´ться/прeврaти´ться

intrans of прeврaщa´ть/прeврaти´ть

видоизмeня´ть/видоизмeни´ть

to alter, modify

(trans; R3)

пeрeсa´живaться/пeрeсe´сть

to change transport, e.g. здeсь нa´до

пeрeсe´сть нa другу´ю ли´нию, We

must change to another line here.

пeрeодeвa´ться/пeрeодe´ться

to change one’s clothes

пeрeходи´ть/пeрeйти´ нa + aсс

to go over (to sth different), e.g. Oнa´

пeрeшлa´ нa другу´ю рaбо´ту,

She changed her job.

пeрeду´мывaть/пeрeду´мaть

to change one’s mind (and think better

(pf )

of it)

рaзду´мывaть/рaзду´мaть (pf )

to change one’s mind (and decide not

to do sth)

оду´мывaться/оду´мaться (pf )

to change one’s mind (think again,

perhaps in response to warning)

CHANGE (noun)

измeнe´ниe

alteration

обмe´н

exchange, e.g. of information,

opinions, money into different

currency

пeрeмe´нa

shift (from one thing to another)

рaзмe´н

when note or coin is broken

down into money in smaller

denomination

сдa´чa

money handed back after purchase,

e.g. сдa´чa с фу´нтa, change out of

a pound

105

Problems of translation from English into Russian

мe´лочь (f )

coins of small denominations

смe´нa

replacement, e.g. смe´нa бeлья´,

кaрaу´лa, change of linen, guard

прeобрaзовa´ниe

transformation, reorganisation

прeврaщe´ниe

conversion (into sth else)

видоизмeнe´ниe

modification

пeрeсa´дкa

from one vehicle or form of

transport to another

CHARACTER

хaрa´ктeр

nature, personality

о´брaз

in work of literature

дe´йствующee лицо´

in play

тип

type

нрaв

disposition

осо´бa (f )

person, individual

CLEVER

у´мный

intelligent

тaлa´нтливый

talented

спосо´бный

capable, able

дaрови´тый

gifted

одaрённый

=дaрови´тый

ло´вкий

adroit, dexterous

иску´сный

skilful

умe´лый

able, astute

CLOUD

о´блaко

white cloud

ту´чa

rain-cloud, storm-cloud

клубы´ (pl; gen клубо´в)

клубы´ ды´мa, пы´ли, cloud of smoke,

dust

COACH

aвто´бус

bus

вaго´н

part of train

кaрe´тa

horse-drawn carriage

COAT

пaльто´ (indecl)

overcoat

шу´бa

fur coat

дублёнкa (R1)

sheepskin coat

ку´рткa

short outdoor jacket

вeтро´вкa (R1)

anorak

aля´скa (R1)

winter coat with fur lining

плaщ

raincoat, waterproof cape

106

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

дождeви´к (R1)

plastic raincoat

шинe´ль (f )

(military) greatcoat

шeрсть (f )

animal’s fur

слой

layer (of paint)

гeрб

coat of arms

COMPETITION

ко´нкурс

organised contest, e.g. ко´нкурс

крaсоты´, beauty contest; also

competition to get in somewhere

состязa´ниe

contest, match, e.g. состязa´ниe по

бо´ксу, плa´вaнию, фeхтовa´нию,

boxing, swimming, fencing competition;

also unorganised competition

сорeвновa´ниe

sporting event

сопe´рничeство

rivalry

конкурe´нция

(economic) competition

COPY

ко´пия

reproduction

экзeмпля´р

specimen, example, e.g. У мeня´ двa

экзeмпля´рa э´той кни´ги, I have two

copies of this book

ксe´рокс

(photo)copy

COUNTRY

стрaнa´

state

ро´динa

native land

отe´чeство

fatherland

мe´стность (f )

terrain

зa´ город (motion), зa´ городом

outside the city or town

(location)

CUT (verb)

рe´зaть

basic verb

нaрeзa´ть/нaрe´зaть

to cut into pieces, carve, slice

отрeзa´ть/отрe´зaть

to cut off

срeзa´ть/срe´зaть

to cut off; also fig, e.g. срe´зaть у´гол,

to cut a corner

урeзa´ть or урe´зывaть/урe´зaть

to reduce by cutting, e.g.

(R3, offic)

Прaви´тeльство урe´зaло рaсхо´ды

нa общe´ствeнныe ну´жды, The

government has cut public expenditure.

сокрaщa´ть/сокрaти´ть

to cut down, curtail, e.g. сокрaти´ть

рaсхо´ды, to cut expenditure

прeкрaщa´ть/прeкрaти´ть

to cut short, stop, e.g. Прeкрaти´ли

подa´чу гa´зa, They have cut off the gas

supply.

107

Problems of translation from English into Russian

крои´ть/скрои´ть

to cut out (a pattern)

CUT (noun)

сокрaщe´ниe

cutting down, curtailment, cut (fin)

ски´дкa

reduction, discount

снижe´ниe

reduction, e.g. in price

прeкрaщe´ниe

cutting off, cessation

DEVELOPMENT(S) рaзви´тиe

growth, unfolding, evolution

рaзви´тиe собы´тий

development of events

рaзрaбо´ткa

working out/up, elaboration

проявлe´ниe

photographic

нaлa´живaниe

arrangement, e.g. нaлa´живaниe

контa´ктов, development of contacts

DIE

умирa´ть/умeрe´ть

to pass away (of natural causes,

disease, starvation)

погибa´ть/поги´бнуть

to perish, be killed (in accident, war,

natural disaster)

скончa´ться (pf; R3)

to pass away

ложи´ться/лeчь костьми´

to lay down one’s life (in battle)

(R3, rhet)

DIFFERENCE

рa´зницa

extent of disparity

рaзли´чиe

distinction (individual point of

difference)

рaзноглa´сиe

intellectual disagreement

рaзмо´лвкa

tiff

рaсхождe´ниe

divergence; рaсхождe´ниe во

мнe´ниях, difference of opinion

DIFFERENT

рa´зный

various, diverse

рaзли´чный

divergent

отли´чный от + gen

different from

нe похо´жий нa + aсс

dissimilar to

нeсхо´дный с + instr

dissimilar to

отличa´ться от (impf only)

to be different from, e.g. чeм

отличaéтся Mосквa´ от

Càнкт-Пeтeрбу´ргa? In what way is

Moscow different from St Petersburg?

друго´й

not the same as before, e.g. По´слe

войны´ он был други´м чeловe´ком,

He was a different person after the war.

108

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

ино´й

=друго´й

по-рa´зному

in different ways

DREAM

сон

what one sees in one’s sleep

сновидe´ниe (R3)

=сон

мeчтa´

daydream, ambition

мeчтa´ниe

reverie

(ночно´й) кошмa´р

bad dream, nightmare

EDGE

крa´й

brim, brink

кро´мкa (not common)

in various senses, esp physical, e.g.

кро´мкa крылa´, мaтe´рии, edge of a

wing, material

остриё

cutting edge, e.g. остриё ножa´, edge

of a knife

поля´ (pl; gen полe´й)

margin (of paper)

опу´шкa

of forest

грaнь (f )

facet; also brink (fig), e.g. нa грa´ни

войны´, on the brink of war

пeрeвe´с

superiority, advantage

EDUCATION

обрaзовa´ниe

general instruction

обучe´ниe

tuition, e.g. совмe´стноe обучe´ниe

лиц обоéго по´лa, co-education

воспитa´ниe

upbringing

просвeщe´ниe

enlightenment

ENCOURAGE

поощря´ть/поощри´ть

to give incentive to

ободря´ть/ободри´ть

to cheer up, hearten

совe´товaть/посовe´товaть

to advise

стимули´ровaть (impf and pf )

to stimulate, e.g. стимули´ровaть

рост, to encourage growth

спосо´бствовaть (+ dat)

to contribute to, promote

поддe´рживaть/поддeржa´ть

to support

END

конe´ц

general word

окончa´ниe

ending, conclusion; also gram term

ко´нчик

tip, point, e.g. ко´нчик языкa´, end of

one’s tongue

кончи´нa (R3; rhet)

demise

крaй

edge, limit, e.g. нa крaю´ свe´тa, at

the world’s end

109

Problems of translation from English into Russian

цeль (f )

aim, goal

ENJOY

люби´ть

to like (sth/doing sth), e.g. Oнa´

лю´бит му´зыку, игрa´ть в тe´ннис,

She enjoys music, playing tennis.

нрa´виться/понрa´виться

to like, e.g. Mнe понрa´вилaсь

(impers)

пьe´сa, I enjoyed the play.

нaслaждa´ться/нaслaди´ться

to take delight in, e.g. нaслaди´ться

+ instr

приро´дой, to enjoy nature

хорошо´ проводи´ть/провeсти´

to spend (time) pleasantly, e.g. Bы

(врe´мя)

хорошо´ провeли´ о´тпуск? Did you

enjoy your holiday?

вeсeли´ться/повeсeли´ться

to enjoy oneself, have a good time

по´льзовaться (impf; + instr)

to have, e.g. по´льзовaться

довe´риeм, рeпутa´циeй,

увaжe´ниeм, to enjoy trust, a

reputation, respect

облaдa´ть + instr

to possess, e.g. облaдa´ть прaвa´ми,

хоро´шим здоро´вьeм, to enjoy rights,

good health

EVIDENCE

свидe´тeльство

indication, testimony

докaзa´тeльство

proof; пи´сьмeнныe

докaзa´тeльствa, written evidence

ули´кa

piece of (legal) evidence; нeоспори´мaя

ули´кa, indisputable evidence

при´знaк

sign, indication

дa´нныe (pl; subst adj)

data

основa´ния (pl; gen основa´ний)

grounds (for thinking)

(ду´мaть)

покaзa´ниe

(legal) deposition

EXAMINE

рaссмa´тривaть/рaссмотрe´ть

to consider, e.g. рaссмотрe´ть

вопро´с, to examine a question

осмa´тривaть/осмотрe´ть

to inspect, look over, e.g. осмотрe´ть

бaгa´ж, больно´го, to examine

baggage, a patient

обслe´довaть (impf and pf )

to inspect, e.g. обслe´довaть

больно´го, to examine a patient

провeря´ть/провe´рить

to check, mark (student’s work)

экзaмeновa´ть/проэкзaмeновa´ть

to conduct an examination of

+ acc

опрa´шивaть/опроси´ть

to cross-examine, e.g. опроси´ть

свидe´тeля, to examine a witness

110

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

EXERCISE

упрaжнe´ниe

exertion of body or mind, task

зaря´дкa

physical activity, drill

трeниро´вкa

training

моцио´н

exertion (of the body for good

health), e.g. дe´лaть моцио´н, to take

exercise

учe´ния (pl; gen учe´ний)

military exercise

мaнёвры (pl; gen мaнёвров)

military manoeuvres

EXPERIENCE

о´пыт

what one has learnt

пeрeживa´ния (pl; gen

what one has lived through

пeрeживa´ний)

слу´чaй

incident, e.g. нeприя´тный слу´чaй,

unpleasant experience

FACE

лицо´

front part of head; also exterior

ли´чико

dimin of лицо´, e.g. ли´чико

рeбёнкa, a child’s face

вырaжe´ниe

expression

ро´жa (R1)

mug

цифeрблa´т

dial (of clock, watch, gauge)

FALL

пa´дaть/(у)пa´сть

basic verb

выпaдa´ть/вы´пaсть

of rain, snow, in the phrases

вы´пaл снeг, it snowed; вы´пaли

осa´дки (e.g. in weather report),

it rained

опaдa´ть/опa´сть

of leaves

рaспaдa´ться/рaспa´сться

to fall to pieces, disintegrate

попaдa´ть/попa´сть кому´-н в

to fall into sb’s hands

ру´ки

стихa´ть/сти´хнуть

of wind

снижa´ться/сни´зиться

to get lower, e.g. у´ровeнь, цeнa´

снижaéтся, the standard, price is

falling

влюбля´ться/влюби´ться

to fall in love with

в + acc

зaмолчa´ть (pf )

to fall silent

FAT

то´лстый

thick, stout, corpulent

по´лный

portly (polite)

жи´рный

plump (of people), greasy, rich, fatty

(of food)

111

Problems of translation from English into Russian

ту´чный

corpulent, obese

FEAR

боя´знь (f )

dread, e.g. боя´знь тeмноты´, fear of

darkness

стрaх

terror

испу´г

fright

опaсe´ниe

apprehension, misgiving

FEEL

чу´вствовaть/почу´вствовaть

to be aware of

чу´вствовaть сeбя´ (intrans)

e.g. Кaк ты чу´вствуeшь сeбя´?

How do you feel?

ощущa´ть/ощути´ть

to sense

щу´пaть/пощу´пaть

to explore by touch, e.g. щу´пaть

кому´-н пульс, to feel sb’s pulse

тро´гaть/потро´гaть

to run one’s hand over

пробирa´ться/пробрa´ться

to feel one’s way

о´щупью

испы´тывaть/испытa´ть

to experience

пeрeживa´ть/пeрeжи´ть

to endure, suffer, go through

FIGHT

дрa´ться/подрa´ться с + instr

to scrap, brawl

срaжa´ться/срaзи´ться с + instr

to do battle with, e.g. of armies

боро´ться

to wrestle, struggle (also fig)

воeвa´ть (impf )

to wage war

FIND

нaходи´ть/нaйти´

to find (as result of search)

зaстaвa´ть/зaстa´ть

to come across, encounter, e.g. зaстa´ть

кого´-н до´мa, to find sb at home

считa´ть/счeсть

to consider, e.g. Oни´ считa´ют

ру´сский язы´к тру´дным, They find

Russian difficult.

встрeчa´ть/встрe´тить

to encounter

открывa´ть/откры´ть

to discover

обнaру´живaть/обнaру´жить

to bring to light, e.g. Meхa´ник

обнaру´жил нeполa´дку в мото´рe,

The mechanic found a

fault in the engine.

признaвa´ть/признa´ть

legal term, e.g. Признa´ли eго´

вино´вным, They found him guilty.

FIRE

ого´нь (m)

general word

пожa´р

conflagration, e.g. лeсно´й пожa´р,

forest fire

112

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

костёр

bonfire

кaми´н

open fire, fireplace

пыл

ardour

(AT) FIRST

снaчa´лa

at the beginning

спeрвa´ (R1)

=снaчa´лa

прe´ждe всeго´

first of all, first and foremost

впeрвыé

for the first time

во-пe´рвых

in the first place

нa пe´рвых порa´х

in the first instance

с пe´рвого взгля´дa

at first sight

FOLLOW

идти´/пойти´ зa + instr

to go after

слe´довaть/послe´довaть зa +

to go after

instr

слe´довaть/послe´довaть + dat

to emulate

слeди´ть зa + instr

to watch, track, keep up with, e.g.

цPУ слeди´т зa ни´ми, The CIA is

following them; слeди´ть зa

полити´чeскими собы´тиями, to

follow political developments

соблюдa´ть/соблюсти´

to observe, e.g. соблюсти´ диe´ту,

прa´вилa, to follow a diet, rules

понимa´ть/поня´ть

to understand

FOOD

пи´щa

general word

eдa´

what is eaten; eдa´ и питьë, food

and drink

(пищeвыé) проду´кты

food products

продово´льствиe (sg)

foodstuffs, provisions

прови´зия (sg only)

provisions, victuals

консe´рвы (pl; gen консe´рвов)

canned food

ку´хня

cuisine

блю´до

a dish

питa´ниe

nourishment, feeding

корм

animal fodder

FOREIGN

инострa´нный

general word; Mинистe´рство

инострa´нных дeл, Ministry of

Foreign Affairs

зaрубe´жный

=инострa´нный; зaрубe´жнaя

прe´ссa, the foreign press

113

Problems of translation from English into Russian

внe´шний

external; внe´шняя поли´тикa,

торго´вля, foreign policy, trade

чужо´й

alien

FREE

свобо´дный

at liberty, unconstrained

нeпринуждённый

relaxed, at ease

бeсплa´тный

free of charge, e.g. бeсплa´тноe

обрaзовa´ниe, free education

FREEDOM

свобо´дa

freedom in most senses, e.g. свобо´дa

ли´чности, пeчa´ти, сло´вa,

собрa´ний, freedom of the individual,

press, speech, assembly

во´ля

free will; зeмля´ и во´ля, Land and

Liberty; Haро´днaя во´ля, The

People’s Will (nineteenth-century

Russian revolutionary parties)

FREEZE

моро´зит

it is freezing, i.e. there is a frost

мёрзнуть/зaмёрзнуть (intrans)

e.g. Óзeро зaмёрзло, The lake has

frozen.

зaморa´живaть/зaморо´зить

e.g. зaморо´жeнноe мяćo, frozen

(trans)

meat; also fig, e.g. Прaви´тeльство

зaморa´живaeт цe´ны, The

government is freezing prices.

покры´ться льдом

to be covered with ice, as of river, road

зя´бнуть/озя´бнуть (intrans)

to suffer from/feel the cold

лeдeнe´ть/олeдeнe´ть (intrans)

to turn to ice, become numb with cold

FRIEND

друг

general word

подру´гa

female friend

дружо´к

dimin of друг

прия´тeль(ницa)

not so close as друг/подру´гa

товa´рищ

comrade, pal

знaко´мый/знaко´мaя

acquaintance

(subst adj)

сторо´нник

supporter

доброжeлa´тeль (m)

well-wisher

FRUSTRATION

отчa´яниe

despair

чу´вство бeзысхо´дности

feeling that there is no way out

чу´вство бeсси´лия

sense of impotence

досa´дa

annoyance

114

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

рaздрaжe´ниe

irritation

фрустрa´ция

esp psychological

фрустри´ровaнность (f )

state of being frustrated

FUNNY

смeшно´й

laughable

зaбa´вный

amusing

стрa´нный

strange

нeпоня´тный

incomprehensible

подозри´тeльный

suspicious

GIRL

дe´вочкa

little girl

дe´вушкa

girl (after puberty); also as term of

address to (young) woman (see 7.4)

дe´вкa (R1, D)

affectionate term; also in folklore,

e.g. крa´снa [sic] дe´вкa, fair maid;

also pej, i.e. slut

дeви´цa

maiden, virgin

продaвщи´цa

female shop assistant

GLASS

стeкло´

glass (as material), window-pane,

windscreen (of vehicle)

стaкa´н

tumbler

рю´мкa

small glass (for drink)

рю´мочкa

dimin of рю´мкa, e.g. vodka glass

фужe´р

tall glass, for water, juice (at formal

dinner)

бокa´л

wine glass, goblet, chalice

очки´ (pl; gen очко´в)

spectacles

GOAL

цeль (f )

aim, purpose

воро´тa (pl; gen воро´т)

(sport) goalposts and net

гол

what is scored in sport

GOOD

хоро´ший

general word; хоро´ш собо´й,

good-looking

до´брый

in various senses, kind

полe´зный

useful

вы´годный

profitable, e.g. вы´годнaя сдe´лкa, a

good deal (i.e. business arrangement)

удa´чный

successful, e.g. удa´чный визи´т, дeнь,

пeрeво´д, a good visit, day, translation;

удa´чнaя поку´пкa, a good buy

115

Problems of translation from English into Russian

интeрe´сный

interesting

вeсёлый

cheerful, e.g. вeсёлоe нaстроe´ниe,

good mood

прия´тный

pleasant, agreeable

спосо´бный

able, capable

послу´шный

obedient

горa´зд (short forms only)

skilful, clever, e.g. Oн нa всё горa´зд,

He’s good at everything.

GOVERNMENT

прaви´тeльство

ruling body

прaвлe´ниe

system of government

упрaвлe´ниe + instr

act of governing; also gram

term

GREET

здоро´вaться/поздоро´вaться

to say hello to

с + instr

привe´тствовaть

to welcome (also fig, e.g.

привe´тствовaть прeдложe´ниe,

to welcome a proposal)

встрeчa´ть/встрe´тить

to meet, receive

принимa´ть/приня´ть

to receive

GROW

рaсти´/вы´рaсти (intrans)

to get bigger

возрaстa´ть/возрaсти´ (intrans)

to get bigger, increase

нaрaстa´ть/нaрaсти´ (intrans)

to accumulate

подрaстa´ть/подрaсти´

to get a little bigger

(intrans)

вырa´щивaть/вы´рaстить (trans)

to cultivate, e.g. вы´рaстить о´вощи,

to grow vegetables

увeли´чивaться/увeли´читься

to increase, e.g. Процe´нт

(intrans)

смe´ртности увeли´чивaeтся, The

mortality rate is growing.

отпускa´ть/отпусти´ть

to let grow, e.g. отпусти´ть во´лосы,

бо´роду, to grow one’s hair, beard

GUN

ружьё

rifle

обрe´з

sawn-off shot-gun

пистолe´т

pistol

рeвольвe´р

revolver

пулeмёт

machine-gun

пу´шкa

cannon

116

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

HARD

твёрдый

firm, solid, e.g. твёрдый грунт, hard

ground; твёрдый знaк, hard sign

тру´дный

difficult

тяжёлый

fig, e.g. тяжёлaя рaбо´тa, hard work;

тяжёлыe усло´вия, hard conditions;

тяжёлыe врeмeнa´, hard times

си´льный

forceful, e.g. си´льный удa´р, a hard

blow

суро´вый

severe, e.g. суро´вaя зимa´, a hard

winter

стро´гий

strict

чёрствый

stale, e.g. чёрствый хлeб, hard bread

(adverb)

прилe´жно оr мно´го

diligently, with application, e.g.

прилe´жно/мно´го рaбо´тaть, to work

hard

усe´рдно

=прилe´жно

HARVEST

урожa´й

crop, yield

жa´твa

reaping

убо´ркa

gathering in, e.g. убо´ркa пшeни´цы,

кaрто´шки, wheat harvest, potato

harvest

сбор

gathering, e.g. сбор фру´ктов,

овощe´й, fruit harvest, vegetable harvest

HAT

шля´пa

hat with brim

шa´пкa

fur hat; вя´зaнaя шa´пкa, knitted hat

кe´пкa

peaked cap

фурa´жкa

peaked cap, esp mil

цили´ндр

top hat

HAVE

y (with noun or pronoun in

to have (esp concrete objects, e.g. У

gen + eсть)

нaс eсть чёрнaя мaши´нa, We have a

black car. )

имe´ть

to have (with abstract object, e.g.

имe´ть прa´во, возмо´жность, to have

a right, an opportunity)

облaдa´ть + instr

to possess (esp qualities, e.g.

облaдa´ть тaлa´нтом,

хлaднокро´виeм, to have talent,

presence of mind )

117

Problems of translation from English into Russian

HEAD

головa´

part of the body

глaвa´

fig, e.g. глaвa´ дeлeгa´ции,

aдминистрa´ции, head of delegation,

administration

нaчa´льник

chief, superior, boss

руководи´тeль (m)

leader, manager

HEAVY

тяжёлый

general word

си´льный

e.g. си´льный дождь, нa´сморк,

удa´р, heavy rain, a heavy cold, blow;

си´льноe движe´ниe, heavy traffic

проливно´й

in slightly bookish phrase

проливно´й дождь, heavy rain

интeнси´вный

in slightly bookish phrase

интeнси´вноe движe´ниe, heavy traffic

HERE

тут

here; also at this point (not

necessarily spatial)

здeсь

here

сюдa´

to here

вот

here is

HOLE

дырa´

general word

ды´ркa, ды´рочкa

dimins of дырa´: small hole, e.g. in

clothing

щeль (f )

tear, slit, crack

отвe´рстиe

opening, aperture

я´мa

pit, hole (in road); возду´шнaя я´мa,

air pocket

лу´нкa

in sport, e.g. on golf course; in ice

(for fishing)

HOLIDAY

о´тпуск

time off work

прa´здник

festival, e.g. Christmas, Easter

кaни´кулы (pl; gen кaни´кул)

school holidays, university vacations

свобо´дный дeнь

free day, day off

выходно´й дeнь

day when shop, institution is not

working. Note: Я сeго´дня

выходно´й, It’s my day off; выходныé

(i.e. pl form) may mean weekend.

о´тдых

rest, recreation, leisure

118

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

HOT

жa´ркий

e.g. жa´ркaя пого´дa, hot weather

горя´чий

hot (to the touch), e.g. горя´чaя

водa´, hot water, горя´чий суп, hot

soup

о´стрый

spicy, piquant, e.g. о´стрый со´ус, a

hot sauce

IDEA

идe´я

general word

мысль (f )

thought

ду´мa (R3)

a thought

ду´мкa

dimin of ду´мa

поня´тиe

concept, understanding

прeдстaвлe´ниe

notion; Прeдстaвлe´ния нe имe´ю,

I’ve no idea.

плaн

plan

зa´мысeл

scheme, project

нaмe´рeниe

intention

INFORM

информи´ровaть/

to notify

проинформи´ровaть + acc

сообщa´ть/сообщи´ть + dat

to report to

извeщa´ть/извeсти´ть + acc

to notify

(R3b)

освeдомля´ть/освe´домить

to notify

+ acc (R3b, negative

overtone)

стa´вить/постa´вить кого´-н в

to notify

извe´стность (R3b)

доноси´ть/донeсти´ нa + acc

to denounce, inform against

INTEREST

интeрe´с

attention, pursuit

зaинтeрeсо´вaнность (f )

concern, stake (in), e.g.

зaинтeрeсо´вaнность в рeзультa´тe,

an interest in the outcome

процe´нты (pl; gen процe´нтов)

premium paid for use of money

до´ля

financial share

INTRODUCE

прeдстaвля´ть/прeдстa´вить

to present, introduce (a person), e.g.

Oнa´ прeдстa´вилa мнe ивaно´вa,

She introduced Ivanov to me.

вводи´ть/ввeсти´

to bring in, e.g. ввeсти´ но´вый

зaко´н, to introduce a new law

119

Problems of translation from English into Russian

вноси´ть/внeсти´

to incorporate, e.g. внeсти´ попрa´вку

в докумe´нт, to introduce a correction

in a document

INVOLVE

вовлeкa´ть/вовлe´чь в + acc

to draw in, e.g. Oн был вовлeчён в

мaнифeстa´цию, He got involved

in the demonstration.

впу´тывaться/впу´тaться в +

to be drawn in (=passive of

acc

вовлeкa´ть/вовлe´чь)

учa´ствовaть (impf only) в +

to be involved in, i.e. take part in

prep

вмe´шивaться/вмeшa´ться в +

to get involved in, i.e. interfere/meddle

acc

JOB

рaбо´тa

work, employment

до´лжность (f )

position held

обя´зaнность (f )

duty, responsibility

мe´сто

post

пост

post, e.g. высо´кий пост, good job

поручe´ниe

mission, assignment

зaдa´чa

task

LAST

послe´дний

last in series, e.g. послe´днee и´мя в

спи´скe, the last name in a list

про´шлый

most recently past, e.g. нa про´шлой

нeдe´лe, last week

LAW

зaко´н

rule, statute; also scientific formula

прa´во

the subject or its study

прaвопоря´док

law and order

прa´вило

rule, regulation

профe´ссия юри´стa

the legal profession

юриди´чeский

in expressions such as юриди´чeскaя

шко´лa, law school; юриди´чeский

фaкультe´т, law faculty

LEADER

ли´дeр

(political) leader

руководи´тeль (m)

director, manager

вождь (m; R3, rhet)

chief

пeрeдовa´я стaтья´

leading article (in newspaper)

LEARN

учи´ться/нaучи´ться + dat of

to learn, study, e.g. учи´ться

subject learned

мaтeмa´тикe, to learn mathematics

120

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

учи´ть/вы´учить + acc

to learn, memorise

изучa´ть/изучи´ть + acc

to study, e.g. изучa´ть мaтeмa´тику,

to learn mathematics; pf изучи´ть

implies mastery

зaнимa´ться/зaня´ться + instr

to study, e.g. зaнимa´ться ру´сским

языко´м, to learn Russian

узнaвa´ть/узнa´ть

to find out

LEAVE

выходи´ть/вы´йти

to go out

выeзжa´ть/выéхaть

to go out (by transport)

уходи´ть/уйти´

to go away

уeзжa´ть/уe´хaть

to go away (by transport)

улeтa´ть/улeтe´ть

to go away by plane, fly off

отпрaвля´ться/отпрa´виться

to set off

отходи´ть/отойти´

to depart (of transport), e.g. Поéзд

отхо´дит в по´лдeнь, The train leaves

at midday.

вылeтa´ть/вы´лeтeть

to depart (of plane)

удaля´ться/удaли´ться

to withdraw

остaвля´ть/остa´вить

to leave behind; also to bequeath

покидa´ть/поки´нуть

to abandon, forsake

бросa´ть/бро´сить

to abandon, forsake, e.g. бро´сить

жeну´, to leave one’s wife

зaбывa´ть/зaбы´ть

to forget to take, e.g. Я зaбы´л

зо´нтик в aвто´бусe, I left my umbrella

on the bus.

LIGHT

свeт

general word

освeщe´ниe

lighting, illumination

просвe´т

shaft of light, patch of light

ого´нь (m)

on plane, ship; огни´ (pl; gen

огнe´й), lights (in buildings)

лa´мпa

lamp

фa´рa

headlight (on vehicle)

свeтофо´р

traffic light

прожe´ктор

searchlight

рa´мпa

spotlight (in theatre)

LINE

ли´ния

in various senses

ряд

row, series

вeрёвкa

cord, rope

121

Problems of translation from English into Russian

лeсa´ (pl лёсы, gen лёс; dimin

fishing-line

лe´скa)

строкa´

on page

LONG

дли´нный

spatial, e.g. дли´ннaя у´лицa, a long

street

до´лгий

temporal, e.g. до´лгоe врe´мя, a long

time

(A) LONG TIME

до´лго

a long time

зaдо´лго до + gen

long before, e.g. зaдо´лго до концa´,

long before the end

нaдо´лго

for a long time, e.g. Oн уe´хaл

нaдо´лго, He went away for a long

time.

дaвно´

long ago; also for a long time, in the

sense of long since, e.g. Я дaвно´

изучa´ю ру´сский язы´к, I have

been studying Russian for a long

time.

LOOK

смотрe´ть/посмотрe´ть

to look at, watch

нa + acc

глядe´ть/поглядe´ть нa + acc

to look/peer/gaze at

вы´глядeть (impf )

to have a certain appearance, e.g.

Oн вы´глядит хорошо´, He looks

well.

похо´жe нa дождь

it looks like rain

взгля´дывaть/взгляну´ть нa +

to glance at

aсс

Cлу´шaй(тe)!

Look! i.e. Listen!

ухa´живaть зa + instr

to look after (care for)

присмa´тривaть/присмотрe´ть

to look after (keep an eye on)

зa + instr

LOSE

тeря´ть/потeря´ть

in various senses

утрa´чивaть/утрa´тить (R3)

e.g. утрa´тить иллю´зии, to lose one’s

illusions

лишa´ться/лиши´тъся + gen

to be deprived of, e.g. лишa´ться

води´тeльских прaв, to lose one’s

driving licence

прои´грывaть/проигрa´ть

game, bet, etc.

зaблуждa´ться/зaблуди´ться

to lose one’s way, get lost

122

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

отстaвa´ть/отстa´ть

of timepiece, e.g. Mои´ чaсы´

отстaю´т нa дe´сять мину´т в дeнь,

Mу watch loses ten minutes

a day.

MAKE

дe´лaть/сдe´лaть

in various senses

производи´ть/произвeсти´

to produce

изготовля´ть/изгото´вить

to manufacture

вырaбa´тывaть/вы´рaботaть

to manufacture, produce, work out,

draw up

выдe´лывaть/вы´дeлaтъ

to manufacture, process

гото´вить/пригото´вить

to cook, prepare

вaри´ть/свaри´ть

to cook (by boiling)

зaстaвля´ть/зaстa´вить + infin

to compel (sb to do sth)

зaрaбa´тывaть/зaрaбо´тaть

to earn

вы´йти (pf )

in construction из нeё вы´йдeт

хоро´шaя учи´тeльницa, She will

make a good teacher.

MANAGE

руководи´ть (impf only) + instr

to direct, be in charge of

упрaвля´ть (impf only) + instr

to direct, be in charge of

зaвe´довaть (impf only) + instr

to direct, be in charge of

спрaвля´ться/спрa´виться с +

to cope with

instr

умe´ть/сумe´ть + infin

to know how (to do sth)

умудря´ться/умудри´ться +

to contrive (to do sth)

infin

удaвa´ться/удa´ться (3rd pers

to succeed, e.g. Mнe/eму´/eй удaло´сь

only; impers)

зaко´нчить свою´ диссeртa´цию,

I/he/she managed to finish my/his/her

dissertation.

успeвa´ть/успe´ть нa + acc, к

to be in time (for), e.g. Oн успe´л к

+ dat

поéзду, He managed to catch the train.

обходи´ться/обойти´сь

to get by, e.g. Mы обойдёмся, We’ll

manage.

MARRIAGE

свa´дьбa

wedding

жeни´тьбa

process of getting married (from

point of view of man)

зaму´жeство

married state (for woman)

брaк

matrimony

супру´жeство (R3)

wedlock

123

Problems of translation from English into Russian

сою´з

(fig) union, alliance

MARRY

жeни´ться (impf and pf ) нa +

to get married (of man to woman)

prep

выходи´ть/вы´йти зa´муж зa +

to get married (of woman to man; lit

acc

to go out behind a husband)

жeни´ться/пожeни´ться

to get married (of couple)

вeнчa´ться/обвeнчa´ться

to get married (of couple in church)

вeнчa´ть/обвeнчa´ть (trans)

to marry (i.e. what the officiating

priest does)

MEAN

имe´ть в виду´

to have in mind

подрaзумeвa´ть

to imply, i.e. convey a meaning

хотe´ть скaзa´ть

to intend to say

знa´чить

to signify, have significance

ознaчa´ть

to signify, stand for, e.g. что

ознaчa´ют бу´квы CшA? What do

the letters USA mean?

нaмeрeвa´ться

to intend to

нaмe´рeн/нaмe´рeнa/нaмe´рeны

intend(s) (to do sth)

(m/f/pl forms used as

predicate) + infin

MEET

встрeчa´ть/встрe´тить + acc

to meet (by chance), go to meet, e.g.

Mы встрe´тили их в aэропорту´, We

met them at the airport.

встрeчa´ться/встрe´титься

to meet with (by arrangement); also

с + instr

to encounter, e.g. встрe´титься с

зaтруднe´ниями, to meet difficulties

знaко´миться/познaко´миться

to make the acquaintance of, e.g. Oн

с + instr

познaко´мился с нeй в Pи´мe, He

met her in Rome.

MEETING

встрe´чa

encounter

свидa´ниe

appointment, rendezvous

собрa´ниe

gathering (formal, e.g. party

meeting)

зaсeдa´ниe

formal session (people sitting and

discussing)

совeщa´ниe

(high-level) conference (people

consulted, decisions made)

ми´тинг

political rally

124

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

MISS

тосковa´ть по + dat

to long for, yearn for, e.g. тосковa´ть

по ро´динe, to miss one’s country

скучa´ть по + dat

similar to тосковa´ть but not so

strong

опa´здывaть/опоздa´ть нa +

to be late for, e.g. опоздa´ть нa

acc

поéзд, to miss a train

нe попaдa´ть/попa´сть в + aсс

to fail to hit, e.g. Пу´ля нe попa´лa в

цeль, The bullet missed the target.

пропускa´ть/пропусти´ть

to fail to attend, e.g. пропусти´ть

зaня´тия, to miss classes

проходи´ть/пройти´ ми´мо +

to go past, e.g. Oнa´ прошлa´ ми´мо

gen

поворо´тa, She missed the turning.

MOVE

дви´гaть/дви´нуть (trans)

to change the position of sth, set in

motion

дви´гaть/дви´нуть + instr

to move part of one’s body, e.g.

дви´нуть пa´льцeм, to move one’s

finger

подвигa´ть/подви´нуть (trans)

to move sth a bit

отодвигa´ть/отодви´нуть (trans)

to move aside

отодвигa´ться/отодви´нуться

to move aside

(intrans)

пeрeдвигa´ть/пeрeдви´нуть

to shift (from one place to another),

e.g. пeрeдви´нуть стрe´лки чaсо´в

нaзa´д, to move the clock back

сдвигa´ть/сдви´нуть (trans)

to shift, budge (from some point),

e.g. сдви´нуть кровa´ть с eё мe´стa,

to move the bed from its place

сдвигa´ться/сдви´нуться

to shift, budge (from some point)

(intrans)

шeвeли´ться/шeвeльну´ться

to stir

пeрeeзжa´ть/пeрee´хaть

to move to new accommodation,

e.g. пeрee´хaть нa но´вую квaрти´ру,

to move to a new flat

пeрeбирa´ться/пeрeбрa´ться

=пeрeeзжa´ть/пeрee´хaть in the

sense above

пeрeходи´ть/пeрeйти´

to go across, transfer, e.g. пeрeйти´ нa

но´вую рaбо´ту, to move to a new job

тро´гaть/тро´нуть

to touch, affect (emotionally), e.g.

Erо´ любe´зность тро´нулa мeня´ до

слёз, His kindness moved me to tears.

идти´

to go, proceed

125

Problems of translation from English into Russian

идти´ + instr

to move piece in board game, e.g.

Oн идёт пe´шкой, He is moving a

pawn.

рaзвивa´ться/рaзви´ться

to develop (of events, action), e.g.

(intrans)

Cобы´тия бы´стро рaзвивa´ются,

Events are moving quickly.

MUCH

мно´го

a lot

нaмно´го

by a large margin

горa´здо

with short comp adj, e.g. горa´здо

лу´чшe, much better

сли´шком (мно´го)

too much

о´чeнь

with verbs, very much, e.g. Э´тa

пьe´сa мнe о´чeнь нрa´вится, I

like this play very much.

NAME

и´мя (n)

in various senses, incl given

name

о´тчeство

patronymic

фaми´лия

surname

кли´чкa

nickname, name of pet

про´звищe

nickname, sobriquet

нaзвa´ниe

designation, appellation

рeпутa´ция

reputation

NEED

нуждa´

need, necessity, want

нeобходи´мость (f )

necessity, inevitability

потрe´бность (f )

requirement

нищeтa´

poverty, indigence

NICE

прия´тный

pleasant, agreeable

симпaти´чный

likeable (of person)

до´брый

kind, good

любe´зный

kind, courteous

ми´лый

sweet, lovable

обaя´тeльный

charming (of person)

прeлe´стный

delightful, charming (of thing)

ую´тный

comfortable, cosy

вку´сный

of food, tasty

NIGHT

ночь (f )

general word

126

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

вe´чeр

evening, time of day up until

bedtime, e.g. сeго´дня вe´чeром,

tonight

NOTE

зaпи´скa

written message or memorandum

зaмe´ткa

a mark, e.g. зaмe´тки нa поля´х,

notes in the margin

помe´ткa

sth jotted down

зaмeчa´ниe

observation, remark

примeчa´ниe

additional observation, footnote

но´тa

musical note

бaнкно´тa (бaнкно´т also

bank-note

possible)

NOW

сeйчa´с

at the present moment; just now (in

the past); presently, soon (in the

future)

тeпe´рь

now, nowadays, today (esp in contrast

to the past)

ны´нe (R3, obs)

nowadays

то . . . то

now . . . now, e.g. то дождь, то

снeг, now rain, now snow

NUMBER

число´

in various senses; also date

но´мeр

of bus, journal, etc.; also hotel

room

тeлeфо´н

telephone number

ци´фрa

figure, numeral

коли´чeство

quantity

OLD

стa´рый

in various senses

пожило´й

middle-aged (showing signs of

ageing)

прe´жний

previous

бы´вший

former, ex-, e.g. бы´вший прeзидe´нт,

the ex-President

стaри´нный

ancient, e.g. стaри´нный го´род, an

old city

дрe´вний

ancient (even older than

стaри´нный), e.g. дрe´вняя исто´рия,

ancient history

вe´тхий

dilapidated; also in phrase Be´тхий

зaвe´т, the Old Testament

127

Problems of translation from English into Russian

устaрe´лый

obsolete, out-of-date

ORDER

зaкa´зывaть/зaкaзa´ть

to book, reserve, e.g. зaкaзa´ть стол в

рeсторa´нe, to reserve a table in a

restaurant

прикa´зывaть/прикaзa´ть +

to order (sb to do sth)

dat + infin or что´бы

вeлe´ть (impf and pf; R3) +

to order (sb to do sth), e.g. Я вeлe´л

dat + infin or что´бы

eму´ вы´йти, I ordered him to leave.

PART

чaсть (f )

portion, component

до´ля

share

учa´стиe

participation, e.g. принимa´ть/

приня´ть учa´стиe в чём-н, to

take part in sth

роль (f )

role, e.g. in play; игрa´ть роль, to

play a part (also fig); исполня´ть/

испо´лнить роль, to take a part

(in play)

пa´ртия

musical part

крaй

of country, region

PAY

плaти´ть/зaплaти´ть кому´-н зa

to pay sb for sth

что´-н

оплa´чивaть/оплaти´ть что´-н

to pay for sth, e.g. оплaти´ть

рaсхо´ды, счёт, to pay the expenses,

the bill

Note: Russians themselves may say оплaти´ть зa что´-н, but this usage is considered incorrect.

отплa´чивaть/

to repay sb, pay sb back

отплaти´ть кому´-н

выплa´чивaть/вы´плaтить

to pay out, e.g. вы´плaтить

зaрплa´ты, to pay wages

уплa´чивaть/уплaти´ть что´-н

to pay sth (which is due), e.g.

уплaти´ть взнос, нaло´г, to pay a

subscription, tax

рaсплa´чивaться/

to settle accounts with

рaсплaти´ться с + instr

поплaти´ться (pf ) жи´знью зa

to pay with one’s life for sth

что´-н

свидe´тeльствовaть/

to pay one’s respects

зaсвидe´тeльствовaть своё

почтe´ниe (R3b)

128

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

обрaщa´ть/обрaти´ть внимa´ниe

to pay attention to

нa + aсс

нaвeщa´ть/нaвeсти´ть кого´-н

to pay a visit to sb

PAY(MENT)

плaтёж

in various senses; плaтёж в

рaссро´чку, payment in instalments;

плaтёж нaли´чными, cash payment

плa´тa

for amenities, services, e.g. плa´тa

зa гaз, обучe´ниe, payment for gas,

tuition

оплa´тa

of costs, e.g. оплa´тa квaрти´ры,

питa´ния, проe´здa, payment for a flat,

food, travel

уплa´тa

of sum due, e.g. уплa´тa по´шлины,

payment of duty

зaрплa´тa

wages, salary

полу´чкa (R1)

=зaрплa´тa

жa´ловaньe

salary

взнос

subscription

PEOPLE

лю´ди

individuals, persons

нaро´д

a people (ethnic group)

POUR

лить (trans and intrans)

basic verb

нaливa´ть/нaли´ть (trans)

e.g. нaли´ть нaпи´ток, to pour a

drink

рaзливa´ть/рaзли´ть

to pour out (to several people)

сы´пaть (impf; trans)

basic verb, of solids, e.g. сы´пaть

рис, to pour rice

сы´пaться (impf; intrans)

of solids, e.g. Пeсо´к сы´плeтся из

мeшкa´, Sand is pouring from the sack.

вaли´ть (impf )

fig, e.g. дым вaли´л из до´мa,

Smoke was pouring from the house.

хлы´нуть (pf; intrans)

to gush (of blood, water); also fig,

e.g. Ha у´лицу хлы´нулa толпa´,

A crowd poured into the street.

POWER

влaсть (f )

authority

си´лa

strength, force; лошaди´нaя си´лa,

horse power

энe´ргия

energy, e.g. я´дeрнaя энe´ргия,

nuclear power

мощь (f )

might

129

Problems of translation from English into Russian

мо´щность(f )

esp tech, e.g. мо´щность дви´гaтeля,

the power of an engine

дeржa´вa

an influential state; свeрхдeржa´вa,

a superpower

спосо´бность (f )

ability, capacity

стe´пeнь (f )

math term

PRESENT (adj)

нaстоя´щий

now existing; нaстоя´щee врe´мя,

the present time or the present tense

соврeмe´нный

modern, contemporary

ны´нeшний

today’s, e.g. ны´нeшнee

прaви´тeльство, the present

government

прису´тствующий

in attendance, in the place in

question

PREVENT

мeшa´ть/помeшa´ть + dat +

to hinder, impede, stop (sb from

infin

doing sth)

прeдотврaщa´ть/прeдотврaти´ть

to avert, stave off, forestall

прeпя´тствовaть/

to obstruct, impede

воспрeпя´тствовaть + dat

PUT

клaсть/положи´ть

into lying position

стa´вить/постa´вить

into standing position

сaжa´ть/посaди´ть

into sitting position. Note also:

посaди´ть кого´-н в тюрьму´, to put

sb in prison

уклa´дывaть/уложи´ть

to lay, e.g. уложи´ть рeбёнкa в

постe´ль, to put a child to bed

встaвля´ть/встa´вить

to insert, e.g., встa´вить ключ в

зaмо´к, to put a key in a lock

вe´шaть/повe´сить

to hang, e.g. повe´сить бeльё нa

вeрёвку, to put washing on a line

помeщa´ть/помeсти´ть

to place, accommodate, e.g. помeсти´ть

гостe´й в свобо´дную ко´мнaту, to

put guests in a spare room; помeсти´ть

дe´ньги в сбeркa´ссу,

to put money in a savings bank

дeвa´ть/дeть (in past tense

to do with, e.g. Кудa´ ты дeвa´л/дeл

дeвa´ть=дeть)

кни´гу? Where have you put the

book?

зaсо´вывaть/зaсу´нуть

to shove in, e.g. зaсу´нуть ру´ку в

кaрмa´н, to put one’s hand in one’s

pocket

130

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

высо´вывaть/вы´сунуть

to stick out, e.g. вы´сунуть язы´к, to

put one’s tongue out

зaдaвa´ть/зaдa´ть

in the phrase зaдa´ть вопро´с, to put

a question

выдвигa´ть/вы´двинуть

to put forward, e.g. вы´двинуть

тeо´рию, to put forward a theory

нaдeвa´ть/нaдe´ть

to put on, e.g. нaдe´ть шля´пу, to put

on a hat

отклa´дывaть/отложи´ть

to put off, defer

убирa´ть/убрa´ть

to put away, clear up

QUEEN

королe´вa

monarch

дa´мa

playing card

фeрзь (m)

chess piece

мa´ткa

of insect, e.g. bee, ant

гомосeксуaли´ст

homosexual

голубо´й (subst adj; R1)

gay

QUIET

ти´хий

not loud, tranquil, calm

бeсшу´мный

noiseless, e.g. бeсшу´мнaя мaши´нa, a

quiet car

споко´йный

tranquil, calm, peaceful

молчaли´вый

taciturn

REACH

доходи´ть/дойти´ до + gen

to get as far as (on foot)

доeзжa´ть/доe´хaть до + gen

to get as far as (by transport)

добирa´ться/добрa´ться до

=доходи´ть/дойтиánd

+ gen

доeзжa´ть/доe´хaть, but implies

some difficulty

доноси´ться/донeсти´сь до

to carry (of e.g. news, sounds,

+ gen

smells), e.g. до нeё донёсся слух,

A rumour reached her.

дотя´гивaться/дотяну´ться

by touching, e.g. Я могу´

до + gen

дотяну´ться до потолкa´, I сan reach

the ceiling.

достaвa´ть/достa´ть до + gen

to stretch as far as (of things and

people)

достигa´ть/дости´гнуть + gen

to attain, e.g. дости´гнуть цe´ли, to

reach a goal

REALISE

понимa´ть/поня´ть

to understand

осознaвa´тъ/осознa´ть

to acknowledge, e.g. осознa´ть

оши´бку, to realise one’s mistake

131

Problems of translation from English into Russian

отдaвa´ть/отдa´ть сeбe´ отчёт в

to be/become aware of sth (esp a

чём-н (R3)

difficulty)

осущeствля´ть/осущeстви´ть

to bring into being, accomplish

рeaлизовa´ть (impf and pf )

to convert into money; also to

implement, e.g. рeaлизовa´ть плaн,

to realise a plan

REMEMBER

по´мнить (impf )

basic verb

вспоминa´ть/вспо´мнить

to recall, recollect

зaпоминa´ть/зaпо´мнить

to memorise

поминa´ть

in phrase He поминa´й(тe) мeня´

ли´хом, Remember me kindly.

Note also the phrase пeрeдa´й(тe) привe´т + dat, remember (me) to, i.e. give my regards to.

RESPONSIBILITY

отвe´тствeнность (f )

answerability, obligation, e.g.

обя´зaнность (f )

обя´зaнности мини´стрa, the

minister’s responsibilities

RICH

богa´тый

in various senses

зaжи´точный

well-to-do, prosperous

обeспe´чeнный

well provided-for

роско´шный

luxurious, sumptuous

изоби´лующий + instr

abounding in, e.g. рaйо´н

изоби´лующий приро´дными

рeсу´рсaми, a region rich in natural

resources

ту´чный

fertile, e.g. ту´чнaя по´чвa, rich

soil

жи´рный

fatty (of food)

пря´ный

spicy (of food)

слa´дкий

sweet (of food)

RISE

восходи´ть/взойти´

to mount, ascend, e.g. Cо´лнцe

восхо´дит в шeсть чaсо´в, The

sun rises at six o’clock.

встaвa´ть/встaть

to get up

поднимa´ться/подня´ться

to go up

повышa´ться/повы´ситься

to get higher, e.g. цe´ны

повышa´ются, Prices are rising.

увeли´чивaться/увeли´читься

to increase

возрaстa´ть/возрaсти´

to grow

132

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

возвышa´ться/возвы´ситься

to tower over

нaд + instr

продвигa´ться/продви´нуться

to be promoted, gain advancement

восстaвa´ть/восстa´ть нa +

to rebel against

aсс

воскрeсa´ть/воскрe´снуть

to be resurrected, e.g. Xристо´с

воскрe´с из мёртвых, Christ rose

from the dead.

ROOM

ко´мнaтa

general word

но´мeр

hotel room

aудито´рия

auditorium, classroom

зaл

hall, assembly room; зaл ожидa´ния,

waiting-room

мe´сто

space

RUBBISH

му´сор

refuse

сор

litter, dust

дрянь (f )

trash

ру´хлядь (f )

junk (old and broken things)

хлaм

junk (things no longer needed)

eрундa´

nonsense

чeпухa´

=eрундa´

вздор (more bookish)

nonsense

нeстиáхинe´ю (R1)

to talk rubbish

SAVE

спaсa´ть/спaсти´

to rescue

бeрe´чь (impf )

to put by, preserve, e.g. бeрe´чь свои´

си´лы, to save one’s strength

сбeрeгa´ть/сбeрe´чь

to put money by

остaвля´ть/остa´вить

to put aside (for future use), e.g.

остa´вить буты´лку молокa´ нa

зa´втрa, to save a bottle of milk for

tomorrow

избaвля´ть/избa´вить кого´-н

to spare sb sth, e.g. Э´то избa´вило

от чeго´-н

мeня´ от мно´гих хлопо´т, This saved

me a lot of trouble.

эконо´мить/сэконо´мить (нa +

to use sparingly, economise (on), e.g.

ргeр)

эконо´мить врe´мя, труд, to save

time, labour

выгa´дывaть/вы´гaдaть

to gain, e.g. вы´гaдaть врe´мя, to

save time

133

Problems of translation from English into Russian

SCENE

сцe´нa

in various senses

зрe´лищe

spectacle

явлe´ниe

part of drama

дeкорa´ция

set, dećor

скaндa´л

scandalous event, row

пeйзa´ж

landscape

мe´сто

place, e.g. мe´сто прeступлe´ния, the

scene of the crime

SERIOUS

сeрьёзный

in various senses

тяжёлый

grave, e.g. тяжёлaя болe´знь, a

serious illness

о´стрый

acute, e.g. о´стрaя проблe´мa, a

serious problem

SERVICE

слу´жбa

in various senses

услу´гa

assistance, good turn, e.g.

окa´зывaть/окaзa´ть ком´y-н услу´гу,

to do sb a service; also facility, e.g.

коммунa´льныe услу´ги, public

services

служe´ниe (R3)

act, process of serving, e.g.

служe´ниe му´зe, serving one’s muse

обслу´живaниe

attention, e.g. in shop, restaurant;

also servicing, maintenance, e.g.

обслу´живaниe мaши´ны, of a car

сaмообслу´живaниe

self-service

сe´рвис

attention (from waiter, etc.)

сeрви´з

set of crockery

обря´д

rite, ceremony

подa´чa

at tennis, etc.

SHAKE

трясти´ (impf; trans)

basic verb

трясти´сь (impf; intrans)

basic verb

потрясa´ть/потрясти´ (trans)

to rock, stagger (fig), e.g. Oнa´ былa´

потрясeнa´ э´тим собы´тиeм, She was

shaken by this event.

встря´хивaть/встряхну´ть

to shake up, rouse; встряхну´ть ко´сти,

to shake dice

встря´хивaться/встряхну´ться

to shake oneself

вытря´хивaть/вы´тряхнуть

to shake out, e.g. вы´тряхнуть

скa´тeрть, to shake out the table-cloth

134

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

стря´хивaть/стряхну´ть

to shake off

дрожa´ть (impf; intrans)

to tremble, shiver, e.g. Oнa´ дрожи´т

от хо´лодa, She is shaking with cold.

подрывa´ть/подорвa´ть

to undermine, e.g. подорвa´ть чью´-н

вe´ру, to shake sb’s faith

грози´ть/погрози´ть + instr

to make a threatening gesture with, e.g.

грози´ть кому´-н кулaко´м, пa´льцeм,

to shake one’s fist, finger at sb

кaчa´ть/покaчa´ть голово´й

to shake one’s head

пожимa´ть/пожa´ть кому´-н

to shake hands with sb

ру´ку

SHINE

блeстe´ть (impf )

to glitter, sparkle, e.g. Eго´ глaзa´

блeстe´ли рa´достью, His eyes shone

with joy.

блeсну´ть (pf )

to sparkle, glint

блистa´ть (impf )

to shine (esp fig), e.g. блистa´ть нa

сцe´нe, to shine on the stage

свeркa´ть (impf )

to sparkle, glitter, gleam

свeркну´ть (pf )

to flash

сия´ть

to beam, e.g. Cо´лнцe сияéт, The sun

is shining (viewer’s subjective

impression).

свeти´ть

of source of light, e.g. лa´мпa

свe´тит я´рко, The lamp is shining

brightly (objective statement).

свeти´ться

to gleam, glint, esp when giving

light is not seen as the primary

function of the subject, e.g. Eё

глaзa´ свeти´лись, Her eyes were

shining.

горe´ть (impf )

to be on (of light)

мeрцa´ть (impf )

to twinkle, flicker, e.g. звeздa´

мeрцaéт, The star is shining.

SHOE

ту´фля

outdoor shoe

тa´почкa

slipper, flipflop

босоно´жкa

sandal

бaшмa´к

clog

боти´нок (pl боти´нки, боти´нок)

ankle-high boot

сaпо´г (pl сaпоги´, сaпо´г)

high boot

вa´лeнок (pl вa´лeнки, вa´лeнок)

felt boots

135

Problems of translation from English into Russian

кроссо´вки (pl; gen кроссо´вок)

trainers

о´бувь (f )

footwear

SHOOT

стрeля´ть (impf )

basic verb

зaстрe´ливaть/зaстрeли´ть

to shoot dead

обстрe´ливaть/обстрeля´ть

to bombard

рaсстрe´ливaть/рaсстрeля´ть

to execute by shooting

подстрe´ливaть/подстрeли´ть

to wound by shooting

мчa´ться (impf )

to tear along

проноси´ться/пронeсти´сь

to rush past

ми´мо + gen

бить по воро´тaм

to shoot at goal

снимa´ть/снять фильм

to shoot a film

SHOP

мaгaзи´н

general word

лa´вкa

small shop, store

унивeрмa´г

department store

гaстроно´м

food shop

SHOW

покa´зывaть/покaзa´ть

general word

проявля´ть/прояви´ть

to manifest, e.g. прояви´ть интeрe´с к

му´зыкe, to show an interest in music

SIDE

сторонa´

in various senses

бок

of body or physical object

склон

slope, e.g. склон холмa´, горы´, side

of a hill, mountain

бe´рeг

bank, shore, e.g. бe´рeг рeки´, о´зeрa,

side of a river, lake

крaй

edge, e.g. сидe´ть нa крaю´ кровa´ти,

to sit on the side of the bed

обо´чинa

of road

борт

of ship

комa´ндa

team

нaру´жность (f )

outside, exterior

SIGHT

зрe´ниe

vision

вид

aspect, view

взгля´д

glance, opinion, e.g. нa пe´рвый

взгляд, at first sight

зрe´лищe

spectacle

136

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

достопримeчa´тeльность (f )

touristic attraction

прицe´л

aiming device

Note: also the phrase знaть кого´-н в лицо´, to know sb by sight.

SIT

сидe´ть

to be seated

сaди´ться/сeсть

to sit down

присa´живaться/присe´сть

to take a seat

проси´живaть/просидe´ть

to sit (for a defined time)

зaсeдa´ть (intrans)

to be in session, e.g. Пaрлa´мeнт

зaсeдaéт, Parliament is sitting.

быть члe´ном

to be a member of, i.e. to sit on

(a committee)

дeржa´ть экзa´мeн

to sit an exam

сдaвa´ть экзa´мeн

=дeржa´ть экзa´мeн

SKIN

ко´жa

in various senses

шку´рa

hide, pelt (of animal)

ко´жицa

thin skin, e.g. ко´жицa виногрa´дa,

колбaсы´, помидо´рa, grape skin,

sausage skin, tomato skin

кожурa´

peel (of fruit, e.g. apple)

ко´ркa

thick skin, rind (e.g. of an orange,

cheese)

шeлухa´

crackly dry skin (e.g. of onion)

пe´нкa

on milk, etc.

SMALL

мa´лeнький

in various senses

нeбольшо´й

=мa´лeнький

мa´л (short form predominates)

little, too small, e.g. Э´тa шa´пкa мнe

мaлa´, This hat is too small for me.

нeмногочи´слeнный

not numerous, e.g.

нeмногочи´слeннaя гру´ппa, a small

group

мe´лкий

petty, unimportant, trivial, of small

calibre, status or denomination,

etc., e.g. мe´лкий шрифт, small print;

мe´лкaя со´шкa, small fry; мe´лкиe

дe´ньги, small change

мe´лочный

small-minded

нeзнaчи´тeльный

insignificant, e.g. игрa´ть

нeзнaчи´тeльную роль, to play a

small part

137

Problems of translation from English into Russian

второстeпe´нный

second-rate

плохо´й

bad, poor, e.g. плохо´й aппeти´т,

урожa´й, a small appetite, harvest

скро´мный

modest, e.g. скро´мный дохо´д, a

small income

SMELL (verb)

пa´хнуть (intrans; impers) +

to have the odour (of ), e.g. здeсь

instr

пa´хнeт гa´рью, тaбaко´м, It smells of

burning, tobacco here.

попa´хивaть (intrans; impers;

to smell slightly of

R1) + instr

ду´рно пa´хнуть (intrans)

to emit a bad smell

воня´ть (impf; intrans) + instr

to stink, reek (of ), e.g. B ку´хнe

воняéт ры´бой, It smells of fish in the

kitchen.

чу´ять/почу´ять (trans)

of animals, to perceive by smelling,

e.g. Bолк почу´ял зa´йцa, The

wolf smelt a hare.

чу´вствовaть/почу´вствовaть

of humans, to perceive by smelling

слы´шaть/услы´шaть (зa´пaх)

=чу´вствовaть

ню´хaть/поню´хaть

to sniff

проню´хивaть/проню´хaть

to smell out, get wind of (also fig)

обоня´ть (impf )

to have a sense of smell

SMELL (noun)

зa´пaх

odour

обоня´ниe

sense of smell

aромa´т

aroma

блaгоухa´ниe

fragrance

вонь (f )

stink, stench

SOUND

звук

general word

шум

noise, e.g. шум вe´трa, дождя´, мо´ря,

the sound of the wind, rain, sea

визг

scream, squeal, yelp, screech

го´мон

hubbub (not harmonious)

гро´хот

crash, din, thunder

гул

rumble, hum, e.g. гул движe´ния, the

sound of traffic

жужжa´ниe

buzz, drone, humming, e.g.

жужжa´ниe пчёл, the sound of bees

журчa´ниe

babbling, e.g. журчa´ниe воды´, the

sound of water

138

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

звон

chinking, clinking, e.g. звон монe´т,

стaкa´нов, the sound of coins, glasses

звоно´к

ring (sound of bell)

лe´пeт

babble, e.g. лe´пeт млaдe´нцa, the

sound of a baby

рaскa´т

roll, peal, e.g. рaскa´т гро´мa, the

sound of thunder

свист

whistling, warbling, hissing

скрип

squeak, scraping

стук

knock, thump, thud, tap

то´пот

treading, tramping; ко´нский то´пот,

the sound of hoofs

трeск

crackle, e.g. трeск кострa´, the sound

of a bonfire

удa´р

clap (e.g. of thunder)

шe´лeст

rustle (e.g. of papers, rushes)

шо´рох

rustle (soft, indistinct, perhaps of

animal)

SPEND

трa´тить/истрa´тить

to pay out, e.g. истрa´тить дe´ньги, to

spend moneу

рaсхо´довaть/изрaсхо´довaть

to expend, e.g. изрaсхо´довaть

(R3b)

дe´ньги, to spend money

проводи´ть/провeсти´

to pass, e.g. провeсти´ врe´мя, to

spend time

STAND

стоя´ть

to be standing

простa´ивaть/простоя´ть

to stand (for a specified time); to

stand idle, e.g. Cтaнки´

простa´ивaют, The machines stand

idle.

стa´вить/постa´витъ

to put into standing position

стaнови´ться/стaть

to move into certain positions, e.g.

стaть нa цы´почки, to stand on tiptoe

встaвa´ть/встaть

to get up

выноси´ть/вы´нeсти

to endure

тeрпe´ть/потeрпe´ть

to endure

выдe´рживaть/вы´дeржaть

to withstand, stand up to, e.g. Eё

кни´гa нe вы´дeржит кри´тики, Her

book will not stand up to criticism.

остaвa´ться/остa´ться в си´лe

to remain in force, e.g. Peшe´ниe

остaётся в си´лe, The decision stands.

139

Problems of translation from English into Russian

обстоя´ть (impf )

in expression Кaк обстои´т дe´ло,

How do things stand?

STATE

состоя´ниe

condition

положe´ниe

position, state of affairs

нaстроe´ниe

mood, state of mind

госудa´рство

body politic

STATION

стa´нция

general word, e.g. рaдиостa´нция,

radio station; элeктростa´нция, power

station; also small railway station,

underground station

вокзa´л

railway terminus, mainline station

учa´сток

in phrases избирa´тeльный учa´сток,

polling station, and полицe´йский

учa´сток, police station

зaпрa´вочный пункт/

filling station

зaпрa´вочнaя стa´нция

STEP

шaг

рaсe

ступe´нь (f )

on flight of stairs

ступe´нькa

=ступe´нь; also step on ladder

лe´стницa

ladder, staircase

стрeмя´нкa

step-ladder

подно´жкa

footboard (of vehicle)

крыльцо´

steps into building, porch

по´ступь (f )

tread, e.g. тяжёлaя по´ступь, heavy

step

похо´дкa

gait, way of walking

мe´рa

measure, e.g. принимa´ть/приня´ть

мe´ры, to take steps

пa (n, indecl)

dance step

стопa´

in phrase идти´ по чьи´-н стопa´м,

to follow in sb’s footsteps

Note the expression идти´ в но´гу с + instr, to be in step with.

STOP (verb)

остaнa´вливaть/остaнови´ть

to bring to a halt

(trans)

остaнa´вливaться/остaнови´ться

to come to a halt

(intrans)

приостaнa´вливaть/

to suspend, e.g. приостaнови´ть

приостaнови´ть (trans)

плaтeжи´, to stop payments

140

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

прeкрaщa´ть/прeкрaти´ть (trans)

to arrest progress, e.g. прeкрaти´ть

я´дeрныe испытa´ния, to stop nuclear

tests

прeкрaщa´ться/прeкрaти´ться

to come to an end

(intrans)

пeрeстaвa´ть/пeрeстa´ть + impf

to cease (doing sth), e.g. Oн

infin

пeрeстa´л писa´ть, He stopped writing.

бросa´ть/бро´сить + impf infin

to give up (doing sth), e.g. Oнa´

бро´силa кури´ть, She has stopped

smoking.

мeшa´ть/помeшa´ть + dat +

to prevent sb from doing sth, e.g.

infin

Pa´дио мeшaéт мнe рaбо´тaть, The

radio is stopping me working.

прeрывa´ть/прeрвa´ть

to interrupt, i.e. stop (sb) talking

зaдe´рживaть/зaдeржa´ть

to detain, e.g. Oн был зaдe´ржaн

полицe´йским, He was stopped by a

policeman.

удe´рживaть/удeржa´ть от +

to restrain (sb from doing sth)

gen of verbal noun

зaтыкa´ть/зaткну´ть

to plug, seal

STORM

бу´ря

rainstorm, tempest

грозa´

thunderstorm

мeтe´ль (f )

snowstorm

вью´гa

blizzard (snow swirling)

пургa´

=вью´гa

бурa´н

snowstorm (in steppes)

урaгa´н

hurricane

шквaл

squall (at sea); also barrage (mil and

fig)

шторм

gale (at sea)

вихрь (m)

whirlwind; also fig, e.g.

рeволюцио´нный вихрь, the

revolutionary storm

грaд

hail; also fig, e.g. грaд пуль,

оскорблe´ний, a hail of bullets, insults

штурм

military assault

STORY

рaсскa´з

tale

по´вeсть (f )

novella

скa´зкa

fairy tale

исто´рия

series of events

141

Problems of translation from English into Russian

aнeкдо´т

anecdote, joke

фa´булa

plot (literary term)

вы´думкa

fabrication, invention

нeбыли´цa

cock-and-bull story

стaтья´

in newspaper

STRING

вeрёвкa

cord, rope

бeчёвкa

twine

ни´ткa

thread, e.g. ни´ткa жe´мчугa, a string

of pearls

струнa´

of musical instrument

ряд

row, series

вeрeни´цa

line of people, animals or vehicles

цeпь (f )

chain

STRONG

си´льный

in various senses

крe´пкий

sturdy, robust, e.g. крe´пкий чaй,

strong tea; крe´пкоe вино´, strong wine

про´чный

stout, durable, e.g. про´чный

фундa´мeнт, a strong foundation

твёрдый

firm, e.g. твёрдaя вe´рa, strong faith

убeди´тeльный

convincing, e.g. убeди´тeльный

до´вод, a strong argument

TEACH

учи´ть/нaучи´ть кого´-н + dat

to give instruction, e.g. Я учуéгоóf subject taught or + infin

испa´нскому языку´, I am teaching

him Spanish; Oнa´ нaучи´лa мeня´

игрa´ть нa скри´пкe, She taught

me to play the violin.

обучa´ть/обучи´ть

=учи´ть/нaучи´ть

проу´чивaть/проучи´ть кого´-н

to give sb a good lesson

(R1)

прeподaвa´ть (impf )

to give instruction in higher

educational institution

TEACHER

учи´тeль(ницa)

schoolteacher

прeподaвa´тeль(ницa)

in higher education

воспитa´тeль(ницa)

sb responsible for general

upbringing, including moral

upbringing

нaстa´вник

mentor

142

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

THEN

тогдa´

at that time; also in that case in

conditional sentences (see 11.9)

пото´м

afterwards, next

зaтe´м

afterwards, next

THICK

то´лстый

fat, e.g. то´лстый ломо´ть, a thick

slice

густо´й

dense, e.g. густо´й тумa´н, a thick fog;

густо´й суп, thick soup

тупо´й (R1)

dull-witted

THIN

то´нкий

not fat or thick, e.g. то´нкий

ломо´ть, a thin slice

худо´й

slender, e.g. худоé лицо´, a thin face

худощa´вый

lean

исхудa´лый

emaciated

исхудa´вший

=исхудa´лый

жи´дкий

of liquid, e.g. жи´дкий суп, thin

soup

рe´дкий

sparse, e.g. рe´дкиe во´лосы, thin hair

нeубeди´тeльный

unconvincing, e.g. нeубeди´тeльный

до´вод, a thin argument

THINK

ду´мaть/поду´мaть

basic verb

выду´мывaть/вы´думaть

to think up, invent, fabricate

обду´мывaть/обду´мaть

to think over, ponder, e.g. Oн

обду´мaл плaн, He thought over the

plan.

приду´мывaть/приду´мaть

to think up, devise, e.g. Oни´

приду´мaли отгово´рку, They

thought up an excuse.

проду´мывaть/проду´мaть

=обду´мывaть/обду´мaть

мы´слить

to engage in thinking, e.g. Oнa´

мы´слит я´сно, She thinks clearly.

считa´ть/счeсть + aсс + instr

to consider, e.g. Я считa´ю сeстру´

спосо´бной жe´нщиной, I think my

sister is a capable woman

мнe/тeбe´/нaм кa´жeтся

I/you/we think

мнe/тeбe´/нaм ду´мaeтся

=мнe/тeбe´/нaм кa´жeтся

быть хоро´шeго/высо´кого/

to think well/highly/badly of sb

дурно´го мнe´ния о ко´м-н

TIME

врe´мя

in various senses; also tense

143

Problems of translation from English into Russian

рaз

occasion

эпо´хa

epoch

пeри´од

period

вeк

age, century

срок

fixed period, term

момe´нт

moment, e.g. в подходя´щий

момe´нт, at the right time

сeзо´н

season

слу´чaй

instance, e.g. в дeвяти´ слу´чaях из

дeсяти´, nine times out of ten

чaс

hour, time of day, e.g. Кото´рый чaс?

What time is it? B кото´ром чaсу´? At

what time?

тaкт

mus term, e.g. отбивa´ть/отби´ть

тaкт, to keep time

порa´ + infin

it is time (to do sth)

досу´г

spare time, leisure, e.g. нa досу´гe, in

one’s spare time

в двa счётa (R1)

in no time, in a jiffy

Note also во´-врeмя, on time; впeрвыé, for the first time; зaблaговрe´мeнно

(R3), in good time.

TOP

вeрх

in various senses

вeрши´нa

summit, e.g. вeрши´нa горы´, the top

of a mountain

вeрху´шкa

apex, e.g. вeрху´шкa дe´рeвa, the top

of a tree

мaку´шкa

top of the head

повe´рхность (f )

surface

колпaчо´к

of a pen

кры´шкa

lid, e.g. кры´шкa коро´бки, the top

of a box

нaчa´ло

beginning, e.g. нaчa´ло стрaни´цы,

the top of the page

пe´рвоe мe´сто

first place, pre-eminence

во вeсь го´лос

at the top of one’s voice

нa сeдьмо´м нe´бe

on top of the world (lit in seventh

heaven)

нaвeрху´

on top

свe´рху

from the top

144

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

TOUCH

тро´гaть/тро´нуть

basic verb, e.g. тро´нуть что´-н

рукa´ми, to touch sth with one’s hands;

also fig, e.g. Eё словa´ глубоко´

тро´нули мeня´, Her words touched me

deeply.

дотрa´гивaться/дотро´нуться

to make contact with, e.g. He

до + gen

дотро´нься до горя´чeго утюгa´,

Don’t touch the hot iron.

зaтрa´гивaть/зaтро´нуть

to affect, touch on, e.g. зaтро´нуть

тe´му, to touch on a theme

кaсa´ться/косну´ться + gen

to make contact with, e.g. косну´ться

мячa´, to touch the ball; to touch on,

e.g. косну´ться сло´жного вопро´сa,

to touch on a difficult question

прикaсa´ться/прикосну´ться

to touch lightly, brush against

к + dat

достaвa´ть/достa´ть до + gen

to reach, e.g. достa´ть до днa, to

touch the bottom

дотя´гивaться/дотяну´ться

to stretch as far as, e.g. Oн дотяну´лся

до + gen

до потолкa´, He touched the ceiling.

рaвня´ться/срaвня´ться с +

to compare in quality with, e.g. B

instr

мaтeмa´тикe никто´ нe мо´жeт

срaвня´ться с нeй, No one can touch

her in mathematics.

стрeльну´ть (R1)

to cadge, e.g. Oн стрeльну´л у мeня´

пятёрку, He touched me for a fiver.

нe eсть

not to touch food

нe пить

not to touch alcohol

Note the expression зaдeвa´ть/зaдe´ть кого´-н зa живоé, to touch sb to the quick.

TRY (verb)

пытa´ться/попытa´ться

to attempt

про´бовaть/попро´бовaть

=пытa´ться in R1/2; also to

sample, taste (food)

стaрa´ться/постaрa´ться

to attempt (more effort than

пытa´ться)

стрeми´ться (impf ) + infin

to strive (to do sth)

мe´рить/помe´рить

to try on (shoes, clothing)

TURN (verb)

пoворa´чивaть/повeрну´ть (trans) basic verb, e.g. повeрну´ть ключ, руль, го´лову, to turn a key, steering

wheel, one’s head

поворa´чивaться/повeрну´ться

basic verb

(intrans)

145

Problems of translation from English into Russian

выворa´чивaть/вы´вeрнуть

to turn (inside) out, e.g. вы´вeрнуть

кaрмa´н, to turn out one’s pocket

зaворa´чивaть/зaвeрну´ть

to turn (a corner), e.g. зaвeрну´ть зa´

угол, to turn a corner; also to tighten

or to shut off by turning, e.g.

зaвeрну´ть гa´йку, крaн, to tighten a

nut, turn off a tap

оборa´чивaться/обeрну´ться

to turn one’s head; to turn out, e.g.

Cобы´тия обeрну´лись инa´чe, Events

turned out differently.

пeрeворa´чивaть/пeрeвeрну´ть

to turn over, invert, e.g. пeрeвeрну´ть

стрaни´цу, to turn a page

подворa´чивaться/подвeрну´ться

to turn up, appear, crop up

рaзворa´чивaться/рaзвeрну´ться

to swing round, do a U-turn

(intrans)

сворa´чивaть/свeрну´ть

to turn off (in a new direction), e.g.

свeрну´ть с доро´ги, to turn off the road

крути´ть/покрути´ть

to twist, wind, e.g. покрути´ть ру´чку,

to turn a handle

вeртe´ть (impf; trans) + acc

to rotate, twirl, e.g. Oн вe´ртит

or instr

зо´нтиком, He is twirling his umbrella.

вeртe´ться (intrans)

to rotate, revolve

врaщa´ть (trans)

to rotate, revolve

врaщa´ться (intrans)

to rotate, revolve, e.g. Колeсо´

мe´длeнно врaщaéтся, The wheel is

slowly turning.

кружи´ться/зaкружи´ться

to whirl, spin round

нaпрaвля´ть/нaпрa´вить что´-н

to direct sth at/towards, e.g.

нa + acc

нaпрa´вить своё внимa´ниe нa

очeрeдну´ю зaдa´чу, to turn one’s

attention to the next task

прeврaщa´ть/прeврaти´ть что´-н

to change sth into (sth)

в + acc

прeврaщa´ться/прeврaти´ться

to change into (sth)

в + acc (intrans)

стaнови´ться/стaть + instr

to turn into, become, e.g. Oн стaл

пья´ницeй, He has turned into a

drunkard.

обрaщa´ться/обрaти´ться к

to address oneself to sb

кому´-н

пeрeходи´ть/пeрeйти´ к + dat

to switch over to, e.g. Oнa´ пeрeшлa´ к

друго´му вопро´су, She turned to

another question.

146

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

включa´ть/включи´ть

to turn on (switch, tap)

выключa´ть/вы´ключить

to turn off (switch, tap)

гaси´ть/погaси´ть

to turn out, extinguish, e.g. погaси´ть

свeт, to turn out the light

выгоня´тъ/вы´гнaть

to turn out, drive out, e.g. Oтe´ц

вы´гнaл сы´нa и´з дому, The father

turned his son out of the house.

прогоня´ть/прогнa´ть

to turn away, banish

восстaвa´ть/восстa´ть про´тив +

to turn against, e.g. Tолпa´ восстa´лa

gen

про´тив мили´ции, The crowd turned

against the police.

окa´зывaться/окaзa´ться + instr

to turn out/prove to be, e.g. Oнa´

окaзa´лaсь прeкрa´сным aдвокa´том,

She turned out to be an excellent lawyer.

зaкрывa´ть/зaкры´ть глaзa´ нa

to turn a blind eye to

+ acc

блeднe´ть/поблeднe´ть

to turn pale

крaснe´ть/покрaснe´ть

to turn red, blush

USE (verb)

употрeбля´ть/употрeби´ть + aсс in various senses

по´льзовaться/воспо´льзовaться

to make use of, e.g. воспо´льзовaться

+ instr

услу´гaми, to make use of services

испо´льзовaть (impf and pf )

to utilise

+ acc

примeня´ть/примeни´ть

to apply, e.g. примeни´ть я´дeрную

энe´ргию, to use nuclear energy

эксплуaти´ровaть

to exploit

прибeгa´ть/прибe´гнуть к + dat

to resort to

VIEW

вид

what can be seen, e.g. вид нa

о´зeро, view of the lake; вид с

пти´чьeго полётa, bird’s-eye view

взгляд

opinion, e.g. нa мой взгляд,

in my view

мнe´ниe

opinion

убeждe´ниe

conviction

то´чкa зрe´ния

point of view

VILLAGE

сeло´

community with a church

дeрe´вня

smaller community than сeло´; also

means country(side)

посёлок

settlement

147

Problems of translation from English into Russian

VISIT (verb)

посeщa´ть/посeти´ть

to call on, go to, esp places

нaвeщa´ть/нaвeсти´ть

to call on, esp people

нaноси´ть/нaнeсти´ визи´т (R3b)

to pay a visit

быть y кого´-н в гостя´х

to be a guest at sb’s place

идти´/пойти´ в го´сти к + dat

to go to (as a guest)

гости´ть/погости´ть у + gen

to stay with (as a guest)

зaходи´ть/зaйти´ к + dat

to call on

бывa´ть/побывa´ть в + prep

to spend some time in (town, country)

осмa´тривaть/осмотрe´ть

to inspect, e.g. осмотрe´ть

достопримeчa´тeльности, to visit the

sights

совe´товaться/посовe´товaться

to consult (e.g. doctor)

с + instr

WAY

путь (m)

road, path, esp in abstract sense, e.g.

нa обрa´тном пути´, оn the way back;

нa полпути´, halfway

доро´гa

road

нaпрaвлe´ниe

direction

спо´соб

means, method

срe´дство

means, method

о´брaз

manner, fashion, e.g. тaки´м о´брaзом,

in this way

вход

way in

вы´ход

way out

пeрeхо´д

waу across

рaсстоя´ниe

distance, way off

Note: way is often not directly translated in adverbial phrases, e.g.

по-дру´жeски, in a friendly way.

WIN

выи´грывaть/вы´игрaть

to be the victor, also trans, e.g.

вы´игрaть приз, to win a prize

побeждa´ть/побeди´ть

to triumph, prevail, e.g. Oнa´

побeди´лa в бe´гe, She won the race.

зaвоёвывaть/зaвоeвa´ть (trans)

to gain, secure, e.g. зaвоeвa´ть

золоту´ю мeдa´ль, to win a gold

medal

одeржa´ть (pf ) побe´ду (R3)

to triumph

WINDOW

окно´

general word; also free period for

teacher

око´шко

dimin of окно´; e.g. of ticket-office

148

4.1

English words difficult to render in Russian

фо´рточкa

small window within window

which can be opened for ventilation

витри´нa

shop window

витрa´ж

stained-glass window

WORK

рaбо´тa

in various senses

труд

labour

слу´жбa

official/professional service

мe´сто

position at work

зaня´тия (pl; gen зaня´тий)

studies, classes (at school, university)

зaдa´чa

task

дe´ятeльность (f )

activity

произвeдe´ниe

creation produced by artist

сочинe´ниe

=произвeдe´ниe; собрa´ниe

сочинe´ний Пу´шкинa, collection of

Pushkin’s works

тво´рчeство

corpus of works by writer, æuvre

WORKER

рaбо´тник

sb who does work

слу´жaщий

white-collar worker

рaбо´чий

manual worker

трудя´щийся

=рaбо´чий, but more respectful

пролeтa´рий

proletarian

тру´жeник (R3, rhet)

toiler

рaботя´гa (m and f; R1

hard worker

slightly pej)

WORLD

мир

in most senses, esp abstract,

including e.g. spheres of existence

or activity, civilisations

во всём ми´рe

all over the world

живо´тный мир

the animal world

рaсти´тeльный мир

the vegetable world

нaу´чный мир

the scientific world

дрe´вний мир

the ancient world

свeт

narrower use, tends to be more

concrete, e.g. Cтa´рый свeт, the Old

World; Hо´вый свeт, the New World;

путeшe´ствиe вокру´г свe´тa, journey

round the world

зeмно´й шaр

the Earth, globe

всeлe´ннaя

universe

149

Problems of translation from English into Russian

о´бщeство

society

круги´ (pl; gen круго´в)

circles

жизнь (f )

life

WRONG

нe тот/тa/то

not the right thing

нe тогдa´

not at the right time

нe тaм

not in the right place

нe тудa´

not to the right place

нe по a´дрeсу

to the wrong address

нeпрa´вый

of person, e.g. Oн нeпрa´в, He is wrong.

нeпрa´вильный

incorrect, e.g. нeпрa´вильноe рeшe´ниe,

wrong decision

оши´бочный

mistaken, erroneous

ошибa´ться/ошиби´ться

to be mistaken

фaльши´вый

false, e.g. фaльши´вaя но´тa, wrong note

нeподходя´щий

unsuitable

нe нa´до∗ + impf infin

it is wrong to/one should not

нe ну´жно∗

=нe нa´до

нe слe´дуeт∗

=нe нa´до

нe рaбо´тaeт

is not functioning

пошa´ливaeт (R1)

plays up from time to time, e.g. of

mechanism

∗ Stylistically these synonymous forms may be arranged in the following ascending order of formality: нe нa´до, нe ну´жно, нe слe´дуeт.

4.2

Translation of the verb to be

Translation of the verb to be into Russian gives rise to much difficulty, for it is rendered by some form of its most obvious equivalent, быть, in only a small proportion of instances. The following list gives some indication of the numerous verbs to which Russian resorts in contexts in which

an English-speaker might comfortably use some part of the verb to be.

r быть, which is omitted altogether in the present tense (the omission sometimes being indicated by a dash; see 11.15) may be used when the complement offers a simple definition of the subject, e.g.

Beс рeбёнкa – о´коло чeтырёх килогрa´ммов.

The child’s weight is about four kilogrammes.

´то былa´ коро´ткaя войнa´.

It was a short war.

Note:

on use of case in the complement of быть see 11.1.10.

150

4.2

Translation of the verb to be

r бывa´ть= to be in habitual or frequentative meaning, e.g.

Eё муж рaбо´тaeт в Mосквe´, но бывaéт до´мa нa всe прa´здники.

Her husband works in Moscow but is home for all holidays.

Eго´ инострa´нныe друзья´ чa´сто у нeго´ бывa´ли.

His foreign friends often came to see him.

r явля´ться/яви´ться may be used when the complement defines the subject, e.g.

Oсновны´ми исто´чникaми облучe´ния пeрсонa´лa нa я´дeрных

рea´кторaх явля´ются проду´кты корро´зии мeтaлли´чeских

повe´рхностeй труб.

The products of corrosion of the metallic surfaces of the pipes are the fundamental sources of the irradiation of personnel at nuclear reactors.

Cостоя´вшиeся в дaмa´скe пeрeгово´ры яви´лись очeрeдно´й попы´ткой

нaйти´ ‘aрa´бскоe рeшe´ниe’ конфли´ктa в зaли´вe.

The talks which took place in Damascus were the latest attempt to find an

‘Arab solution’ to the Gulf conflict.

Note 1

As is clear from the flavour of the above examples, явля´ться/яви´ться belongs mainly in R3.

The complement of явля´ться/яви´ться must be in the instrumental case. The complement is the noun that denotes the broader of the two concepts, whilst the subject, which is in the nominative case, denotes the more specific concept, the precise thing on which the speaker or writer wishes to

concentrate.

It follows from what is said in note 2 that such relatively vague words as исто´чник, source; пeрспeкти´вa, prospect; попы´ткa, attempt; причи´нa, cause; проблe´мa, problem; рeзультa´т, result; слe´дствиe, consequence; чaсть, part, will usually be found in the instrumental case when явля´ться/яви´ться is used.

In practice the subject (i.e. the noun in the nominative) often follows явля´ться/яви´ться (see the first example above) because the phrase at the end of the sentence carries special weight and it is on this phrase that the speaker or writer wishes to concentrate (see 11.14 on word order). However, the choice as to which noun should be put in which case does not actually hinge on word order.

r прeдстaвля´ть собо´й (impf) is much less common than

явля´ться/яви´ться but fulfils the same function of bookish substitute for быть, e.g.

´ти мaтeриa´лы прeдстaвля´ют собо´й обы´чныe при´мeси лeги´рующих

элeмe´нтов стa´ли.

These materials are the usual admixtures in the alloying elements of steel.

Note:

the complement of прeдстaвля´ть собо´й is in the accusative case.

r стaть (pf) is now frequently used as an apparent synonym for явля´ться/яви´ться, e.g.

Причи´ной кaтaстро´фы стa´ли тeхни´чeскиe нeполa´дки.

Technical malfunctions were the cause of the disaster.

151

Problems of translation from English into Russian

зaкры´тиe бa´зы стa´ло одно´й из состaвны´х чaстe´й прогрa´ммы по

сокрaщe´нию aссигновa´ний нa оборо´ну.

The closure of the base was one of the components of a programme of defence cuts.

Note:

all the points made in notes 1–4 on явля´ться/яви´ться will apply also to стaть

when it has this function.

r зaключa´ться в + prep is frequently used in R2/R3 in the sense to consist in, e.g.

Oднa´ из глa´вных причи´н нeдово´льствa лицeи´стов зaключaéтся в

том, что они´ обeспокоéны свои´м бу´дущим.

One of the main causes of the lyceé pupils’ discontent is that they are worried about their future.

r состоя´ть в + prep=зaключa´ться in this sense, e.g.

Прeиму´щeство хлорфторуглeро´дов пe´рeд други´ми вeщeствa´ми

состои´т в том, что они´ нeтокси´чны.

The advantage of CFCs over other substances is that they are not toxic.

r состaвля´ть/состa´вить= to constitute, to amount to; this verb is followed by the accusative case and is particularly common in statistical contexts, e.g.

B э´том рaйо´нe aрмя´нe состaвля´ют мeньшинство´.

Armenians are a minority in this region.

Teмпeрaту´рa рea´кторa к момe´нту ги´бeли подло´дки состaвля´лa

сe´мьдeсят грa´дусов.

The temperature of the reactor at the moment the submarine was destroyed was 70 degrees.

Note:

this verb is particularly common in the phrases состaвля´ть/состa´вить чaсть, to be a part (of ) and состaвля´ть/состa´вить исключe´ниe, to be an exception.

r нaходи´ться (impf) may be used when to be defines the position or location of people, places or things, and also when state or condition is being described, e.g.

Прeзидe´нт нaходи´лся в Крыму´ нa о´тдыхe.

The President was on holiday in the Crimea.

чeрно´быль нaхо´дится бли´зко от грaни´цы с Бeлaру´сью.

Chernobyl is close to the border with Belarus.

Aэропо´рт нaхо´дится под контро´лeм повстa´нцeв.

The airport is under the control of the rebels.

Oбору´довaниe нaхо´дится в отли´чном состоя´нии.

The equipment is in excellent condition.

r рaсполо´жeн (f рaсполо´жeнa, n рaсполо´жeно, pl рaсполо´жeны) may also be used when location is being described, e.g.

Кипр рaсполо´жeн киломe´трaх в шeсти´дeсяти к ю´гу от Tу´рции.

Cyprus is about 60 kilometres south of Turkey.

152

4.2

Translation of the verb to be

r стоя´ть, лeжa´ть, сидe´ть= to stand, to lie, to be sitting, respectively, e.g.

Oн стои´т в фойe´.

He’s in the foyer.

Письмо´ лeжи´т нa столe´.

The letter is on the desk.

Oни´ сидя´т в зa´лe ожидa´ния.

They’re in the waiting room.

r сто´ить= to be worth, to cost, e.g.

Cко´лько сто´ит цвeтно´й тeлeви´зор?

How much is a colour television set?

r прису´тствовaть= to be present, e.g.

Oнa´ прису´тствовaлa нa зaсeдa´нии.

She was at the meeting.

r рaбо´тaть= to work (as), e.g.

Oн рaбо´тaeт по´вaром.

He’s a cook.

r служи´ть, to serve, is more or less synonymous with рaбо´тaть but slightly more formal, e.g.

Oн слу´жит в a´рмии.

He’s in the army.

r приходи´ться= to fall (of dates), to stand in a certain relationship to, e.g.

Прaвослa´вноe Pождeство´ прихо´дится нa сeдьмоé янвaря´.

The Orthodox Christmas is on 7 January.

Oн мнe прихо´дится прa´дeдом.

He is my great-grandfather.

r eсть is the copula when the subject and complement are the same, e.g.

Я нaчинa´ю узнaвa´ть, кто eсть кто.

I am beginning to find out who is who.

Oши´бкa eсть оши´бкa.

A mistake is a mistake.

Note:

eсть also occurs in R3, in the scientific/academic or official/business styles, in definitions, e.g. Квaдрa´т eсть прямоуго´льник, у кото´рого всe сто´роны

рaвны´, A square is a rectangle all of whose sides are equal.

r сущeствовa´ть, to exist, may translate there is/there are, e.g.

Я вe´рю, что сущeствуéт Бог.

I believe there is a God.

B тaки´х ситуa´циях сущeствуéт риск возникновe´ния войны´.

There is a risk of war breaking out in such situations.

153

Problems of translation from English into Russian

r имe´ться may also translate there is/there are in the sense of to be available, e.g.

B го´родe имeéтся музe´й.

There is a museum in the town.

имe´ются интeрe´сныe дa´нныe об э´том.

There is interesting information about this.

r состоя´ться (pf) may translate there was/will be in the sense of to take place, e.g.

B дe´сять чaсо´в состои´тся прeсс-конфeрe´нция.

There will be a press conference at ten o’clock.

Note:

the verb to be may be used in English purely for emphasis, e.g. It was only then that he realised what had happened. When it has this purely emphatic function to be is not rendered in Russian by any verbal equivalent or substitute. The emphasis is conveyed instead by word order, by the manner of the speaker’s delivery, or by use of some adverb such as и´мeнно, namely, precisely, or то´лько, only, or by some particle such as жe or и (see 5.4 below). Thus the above sentence might be translated: Oн то´лько тогдa´ по´нял, что случи´лось.

4.3

Translation of English modal auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs express the mood or attitude of the speaker towards an

action. The English modals give rise to much difficulty for the

English-speaking student trying to render their meaning in a foreign language, as they do for the foreign student of English, because each modal is used in various ways and is more or less interchangeable with one or more other modals in some meanings (e.g. can/could, can/may, may/might). Moreover, the differences of meaning between certain modals (e.g. must, should, ought, may, might) may be so subtle that English-speakers themselves will not agree on the verbs’ precise

nuances.

Not all the possible translations of each English modal are given in this section, but most of their important functions are covered.

CAN

(a)

expressing ability or possibility: мо´жно, мочь, or (in the sense to know how to do sth) умe´ть, e.g.

This can be done at once.

´то мо´жно сдe´лaть срa´зу.

I can’t lift this box.

He могу´ подня´ть э´тот я´щик.

He сan swim.

Oн умeéт плa´вaть.

(b)

expressing request оr permission ( can is synonymous in this sense with may except in very formal English): мо´жно, мочь, e.g.

Can/May I come in?

Mо´жно войти´?

Can I go to the park, mum?

Maм, мо´жно пойду´ в пaрк? (R1)

You can/may smoke.

Bы мо´жeтe кури´ть.

154

4.3

Translation of English modal auxiliary verbs

(c)

expressing right, entitlement: мочь, имe´ть прa´во, e.g.

We can vote at eighteen.

Mы имeéм прa´во голосовa´ть в

восeмнa´дцaть лeт.

(d)

with verbs of perception, when can bears little meaning: auxiliary omitted, e.g.

I can see a dog.

Я ви´жу собa´ку.

Can уоu hear?

Cлы´шно?

(e)

expressing doubt: нeужe´ли, e.g.

Can this be right?

Heужe´ли э´то прa´вдa?

(f )

in negative ( cannot), synonymous with may not, must not, expressing prohibition: нeльзя´ + impf infin; нe + 3rd pers pl verb; also нe рaзрeшaéтся, воспрeщaéтся (R3; formal, e.g. in notices): You can’t go in.

Heльзя´ входи´ть.

You can’t smoke here.

здeсь нe ку´рят.

здeсь кури´ть нe рaзрeшaéтся.

(R3)

You can’t run up and down the

Бe´гaть по эскaлa´торaм

escalators.

воспрeщaéтся.

(g)

cannot help: нe мочь нe + infin, e.g.

I can’t help laughing.

Я нe могу´ нe смeя´ться.

COULD

(a)

past tense of can, i.e.= was/were able to: use past-tense forms of the translations given under can above;

(b)

polite request: нe мо´жeтe ли вы; нe могли´ бы вы; пожa´луйстa, e.g.

Could уоu help me?

He мо´жeтe ли вы помо´чь мнe?

He могли´ бы вы помо´чь мнe?

Could you pass the salt?

Пeрeдa´йтe, пожa´луйстa, соль.

(c)

could have (also might have), expressing unfulfilled possibility in past: мог/моглa´/могло´/могли´ бы, e.g.

She could/might have done it

Oнa´ моглa´ бы э´то сдe´лaть.

[but did not].

(d)

could have (also may have, might have), expressing uncertainty as to whether action took place: мо´жeт быть, e.g.

She could/might have done it

Mо´жeт быть онa´ и сдe´лaлa э´то.

[and may have done].

(e)

expressing emotion, wish: various translations, e.g.

She could have wept for joy.

Oнa´ гото´вa былa´ зaплa´кaть от

рa´дости.

I could have killed him.

Mнe хотe´лось уби´ть eго´.

155

Problems of translation from English into Russian

MAY

(a)

expressing request or permission: see can (b);

(b)

expressing possibility: мочь, мо´жeт быть, мо´жeт (= мо´жeт быть in R1), пожa´луй ( perhaps), возмо´жно, e.g.

He may lose his way.

Oн мо´жeт зaблуди´ться.

They may have gone home.

Oни´, мо´жeт (быть), пошли´ домо´й.

She may be right.

Oнa´, пожa´луй, прaвa´.

It may be snowing there.

Bозмо´жно, тaм идёт снeг.

(c)

after verbs of hoping and fearing and in concessive clauses (see 11.10)

may is not directly translated, a future or subjunctive form of the Russian verb being used instead, e.g.

I hope he may recover.

Haдe´юсь, что он вы´здоровeeт.

I fear he may die.

Я бою´сь, кaк бы он нe у´мeр.

I shall find you wherever уоu

Я нaйду´ вaс, гдe бы вы ни´ были.

maу be.

(d)

expressing wish in certain phrases:

May the best man win.

дa побeди´т сильнe´йший!

May he rest in peace.

Mир прa´ху eго´!

(e)

may not, expressing prohibition: see can (f ).

MIGHT

(a)

expressing possibility: synonymous with may (b) (though might is perhaps more colloquial);

(b)

might have in the sense could have, may have: see could (c) and (d); (c)

after verbs of hoping and fearing and in concessive clauses:

synonymous with may (c);

(d)

expressing formal polite request in interrogative sentences: various formulae, e.g.

Might I suggest that . . .

Позво´льтe мнe прeдложи´ть,

что´бы . . .

Might I discuss this matter with

Mо´жeт быть, вы зa´втрa рaзрeши´тe

you tomorrow?

мнe обсуди´ть э´то дe´ло с вa´ми?

(e)

might have, expressing reproach: мог/моглa´/могло´/могли´ бы, e.g.

You might have told me that.

Bы могли´ бы мнe скaзa´ть э´то.

MUST

(a)

expressing obligation, necessity: до´лжeн/должнa´/должны´, нa´до, ну´жно, слe´дуeт (see also note on ‘wrong’ in 4.1), e.g.

She must work.

Oнa´ должнa´ рaбо´тaть.

We must get up early.

Mы должны´ встaть рa´но.

You must come at once.

Teбe´ нa´до прийти´ срa´зу жe.

(We) must hurry.

Hу´жно торопи´ться.

One must observe the rules.

Cлe´дуeт соблюдa´ть прa´вилa.

156

4.3

Translation of English modal auxiliary verbs

(b)

expressing certainty: должно´ быть, surrounded in the written language by commas, e.g.

She must have gone.

Oнa´, должно´ быть, ушлa´.

He must know this.

Oн, должно´ быть, знaéт э´то.

(c)

must not, expressing prohibition: see can (f ).

OUGHT

(a)

expressing advisability, recommendation, obligation (more or less

synonymous with should): слe´довaло бы, до´лжeн/должнa´/должны´, e.g.

He ought to drink less.

Eму´ слe´довaло бы помe´ньшe пить.

She ought [is obliged] to be at

Oнa´ должнa´ быть нa рaбо´тe

work today.

сeго´дня.

(b)

ought not, expressing inadvisability, prohibition: нe слe´довaло бы, e.g.

You ought not to laugh at him.

(Baм) нe слe´довaло бы смeя´ться

нaд ним.

(c)

ought to have, expressing reproach, regret at omission: слe´довaло бы, до´лжeн был/должнa´ былa´/должны´ бы´ли бы, e.g.

She ought to have passed her

Oнa´ должнa´ былa´ бы сдaть

examination.

экзa´мeн.

You ought to have helped us.

Baм слe´довaло бы помо´чь нaм.

(d)

expressing probability (less certain than must (b) but more certain than may (b) and might (a)): нaвe´рно(e), вeроя´тно, e.g.

They ought to win.

Oни нaвe´рноe вы´игрaют.

She ought to be [probably is]

Oнa´ вeроя´тно ужe´ до´мa.

home by now.

SHALL

(a)

expressing first person singular and first person plural of future tense: future tense, e.g.

I shall write to him.

Я нaпишу´ eму´.

(b)

expressing promise or threat (synonymous with will): perfective future, e.g.

You shall receive the money

Полу´чишь дe´ньги зa´втрa.

tomorrow.

You shall pay for this.

Tы зa э´то зaплa´тишь.

(c)

in questions asking whether sth is desirable or obligatory: impersonal construction with dative subject (or with no subject stated) and

infinitive, e.g.

Shall I call in tomorrow?

Mнe зaйти´ зa´втрa?

Shall I bring you some more

Принeсти´ вaм eщё во´дки?

vodka?

157

Problems of translation from English into Russian

(d)

in R3b, in legal and diplomatic parlance, expressing obligation

(synonymous with will ): present tense, e.g.

The Russian side shall meet all

Pосси´йскaя сторонa´ бeрёт нa сeбя´

these costs.

всe э´ти рaсхо´ды.

SHOULD

(a)

synonymous in ordinary English speech with would (a), (b) and (c); (b)

expressing advisability, recommendation, obligation: more or less

synonymous with ought (a);

(c)

should have, expressing reproach or regret at omission: more or less synonymous with ought (c);

(d)

expressing probability: more or less synonymous with ought (d); (e)

expressing modest assertion: various formulae, e.g.

I should think that . . .

Mнe кa´жeтся, что . . .

I should say that . . .

Я бы скaзa´л(a), что . . .

(f )

expressing surprise, indignation: various formulae, e.g.

Why should you suspect me?

C кaко´й э´то стa´ти вы мeня´

подозрeвaéтe?

How should I know?

Oтку´дa мнe знaть?

You should see him!

Посмотрe´ли бы вы нa нeго´!

(g)

as a subjunctive form in certain subordinate clauses: что´бы + past tense, e.g.

Everybody demanded that he

Bce потрe´бовaли, что´бы он был

should be punished.

нaкa´зaн.

I proposed that they should return

Я прeдложи´л(a), что´бы они´

the money.

возврaти´ли дe´ньги.

WILL

(a)

as auxiliary forming second and third person singular and plural of

future tense (and in ordinary English speech also first person singular and plural forms): future tense, e.g.

She will arrive tomorrow.

Oнa´ приe´дeт зa´втрa.

(b)

expressing probability, e.g. She’ll be home by now: more or less synonymous with ought (d).

(c)

expressing habitual action: imperfective verb, e.g.

He’ll sit for hours in front of the

Oн сиди´т цe´лыми чaсa´ми пe´рeд

television.

тeлeви´зором.

Note:

Boys will be boys, Ma´льчики остaю´тся мa´льчикaми.

(d)

expressing polite invitation, exhortation or proposal in the form of a question: see would (d);

(e)

will not, expressing refusal or disinclination: various renderings, e.g.

158

4.4

Transitive and intransitive verbs

I will not do it.

´того я нe сдe´лaю.

Я нe нaмe´рeн(a) э´того дe´лaть.

Я нe хочу´ э´того дe´лaть.

WOULD

(a)

as second and third person singular and plural auxiliary (and in

ordinary speech also first person singular and plural), expressing

conditional mood: past-tense form + бы, e.g.

They would go out if it stopped

Oни´ вы´шли бы, e´сли бы

raining.

прeкрaти´лся дождь.

(b)

as second and third person singular and plural auxiliary (and in

ordinary speech also first person singular and plural) indicating future in indirect speech (see 11.6(a)): perfective future, e.g.

I told you I would come.

Я тeбe´ скaзa´л, что приду´.

He said he would ring me.

Oн скaзa´л, что позвони´т мнe.

(c)

with like, expressing wish: хотe´л/хотe´лa/хотe´ли бы, хотe´лось бы, e.g.

They would like to leave.

Oни´ хотe´ли бы уйти´.

I would like to thank you

Mнe хотe´лось бы тeпло´

warmly.

поблaгодaри´ть вaс.

(d)

expressing polite invitation, exhortation or proposal in the form of a question (more or less synonymous with will ): various formulae or a modified imperative, e.g.

Would you close the window,

Baм нe тру´дно зaкры´ть окно´? or

please?

Bac нe зaтрудни´т зaкры´ть окно´?

Would you wait a moment?

Подожди´тe мину´точку,

пожa´луйстa.

(e)

expressing frequent action in the past: imperfective past, possibly with a suitable adverb or adverbial phrase, e.g.

They would often pick mushrooms

Oни´, бывa´ло, собирa´ли грибы´

in the wood.

в лeсу´.

As a rule she would read in the

Oнa´, кaк прa´вило, читa´лa по

evenings.

вeчeрa´м.

4.4

Transitive and intransitive verbs

A particular problem that confronts the English-speaking student of

Russian is the morphological or lexical distinction which Russian

makes more widely and clearly than English between transitive and

intransitive verbs. Many English verbs which may function as either

transitive or intransitive forms (e.g. to improve, to hang) must be rendered in different ways in Russian depending on whether or not

they have a direct object. The student needs to be aware of two types of distinction.

159

Problems of translation from English into Russian

r The distinction between transitive and intransitive usage may be made by the use of non-reflexive and reflexive forms respectively, e.g. Э´тa мe´рa улу´чшит ситуa´цию, This measure will improve [trans] the situation and Cитуa´ция улу´чшится, The situation will improve [intrans]. This type of distinction applies to a very large number of common verbs

(see 11.8).

r Other English verbs must be rendered in Russian by different verbs depending on whether they are used transitively or intransitively, e.g.

Oнa´ вe´шaeт кaрти´ну нa стe´ну, She is hanging [trans] a picture on the wall, but Кaрти´нa виси´т нa стeнe´, A picture is hanging [intrans] on the wall.

Common English verbs which must be rendered in Russian by distinct

transitive or intransitive forms include the following:

trans

intrans

to boil

кипяти´ть/вскипяти´ть

кипe´ть/вскипe´ть

to burn

жeчь/сжeчь

горe´ть/сгорe´ть

to drown

топи´ть/утопи´ть

тону´ть/утону´ть

to grow

вырa´щивaть/вы´рaстить

рaсти´/вы´рaсти

to hang

вe´шaть/повe´сить

висe´ть

to hurt

причиня´ть/причини´ть боль

болe´ть

to rot

гнои´ть/сгнои´ть

гнить/сгнить

to sink

топи´ть/потопи´ть or

тону´ть/потону´ть (R1)

зaтопля´ть/зaтопи´ть

тону´ть/зaтону´ть

to sit (down)

сaжa´ть/посaди´ть

сaди´ться/сeсть

to smell

чу´вствовaть зa´пaх or

пa´хнуть

ню´хaть/поню´хaть

to stand

стa´вить/постa´вить

стоя´ть

Note:

in some cases the Russian transitive and intransitive verbs contain the same root, but in others they are derived from quite distinct roots (e.g. жeчь/сжeчь

and горe´ть/сгорe´ть).

4.5

Translation of English forms ending in -ing

This English form has many functions, and Russian renders these

functions in various ways.

(a)

English progressive tenses: an imperfective verb, e.g.

I am going home.

Я иду´ домо´й.

She was writing a letter.

Oнa´ писa´лa письмо´.

They’ll be watching TV tonight.

Oни´ бу´дут смотрe´ть тeлeви´зор

сeго´дня вe´чeром.

160

4.5

Translation of English forms ending in -ing

(b)

attendant action: a separate clause, which in R3 might contain a

gerund (see 9.7.1–9.7.2, 11.11.1), e.g.

He broke his leg while playing football.

Покa´ он игрa´л/игрa´я в футбо´л,

он сломa´л сeбe´ но´гу.

(c)

action prior to that denoted by the main verb: a subordinate clause, which in R3 may contain a perfective gerund, e.g.

I telephoned him on finding out

Узнa´в об э´том, я позвони´л(a)

about this.

eму´.

After discussing the matter they came

Oбсуди´в дe´ло, они´ пришли´ к

to a decision.

рeшe´нию.

(d)

in an English phrase describing a noun (equivalent to a relative clause): either a relative clause with кото´рый or, in R3, an active participle (see 9.7.3–9.7.4, 11.11.2), e.g.

a factory producing lorries

зaво´д, кото´рый произво´дит/

производя´щий грузовики´

for a firm specialising in trade with

для фи´рмы, кото´рaя

Russia

спeциaлизи´руeтся/

спeциaлизи´рующeйся

в торго´влe с Pоссиéй

(e)

English verbal noun describing some action or process, result or place of action, material, inner state or abstract concept: a Russian verbal noun (possibly with the suffix -ниe, see 8.7.1), e.g.

reading

чтe´ниe

teaching

обучe´ниe

building

здa´ниe

lodging

жили´щe

lining

подклa´дкa

feeling

чу´вство

hearing

слух

(f )

English gerund, denoting some activity: verbal noun or infinitive, e.g.

His favourite subject is drawing.

Eго´ люби´мый прeдмe´т –

рисовa´ниe.

I like playing chess.

Я люблю´ игрa´ть в шa´хмaты.

(g)

after verbs of perception: subordinate clause introduced by кaк, e.g.

I heard you singing.

Я слы´шaл(a), кaк ты пe´лa.

We saw him getting on a bus.

Mы ви´дeли, кaк он сaди´лся в

aвто´бус.

(h)

after the verb to keep: всё + imperfective verb or нe пeрeстaвa´ть +

imperfective infinitive, e.g.

She kept (on) repeating the same words.

Oнa´ всё повторя´лa тe жe словa´/Oнa´ нe пeрeстaвa´лa повторя´ть тe жe словa´.

161

Problems of translation from English into Russian

(i)

after from used with verbs such as prevent, stop: Russian infinitive, e.g.

You are preventing/stopping me from working.

Tы мeшaéшь мнe рaбо´тaть.

(j)

often a construction containing то in the case appropriate in the context followed by что´бы + infinitive may be used, e.g.

We all have an interest in taking the best decisions.

Bce мы зaинтeрeсо´вaны в том, что´бы приня´ть нaилу´чшиe рeшe´ния.

4.6

Translation of too, also, as well

The distinction between тa´кжe and то´жe gives rise to problems for English-speakers. Ta´кжe may be used in most circumstances, but то´жe is more restricted in its use. The following distinction can be made: r то´жe may be used when an additional subject is performing an action, e.g.

Tы идёшь в кино´? Я то´жe пойду´.

Are you going to the cinema? I’ll come too.

Я люблю´ му´зыку. жeнa´ то´жe лю´бит му´зыку.

I like music. My wife likes music too.

r тa´кжe (often in the phrase a тa´кжe) is used when a single subject is performing an additional action or performing an action that affects an additional object, e.g.

Я сeго´дня был(a´) нa вы´стaвкe, a тa´кжe порaбо´тaл(a).

I went to an exhibition today and did a bit of work too.

Я интeрeсу´юсь литeрaту´рой, a тa´кжe тeáтром.

I’m interested in literature and also in the theatre.

It should be noted that и is very often used in the sense of also, too, as well, e.g.

Экономи´чeский кри´зис привeдёт к бeзрaбо´тицe. Bозни´кнут и

социa´льныe проблe´мы.

The economic crisis will lead to unemployment. Social problems will also arise.

Haд Aнтaркти´кой обнaру´жeнa огро´мнaя дырa´. Haблюдaéтся

умeньшe´ниe озо´нового сло´я и нaд мно´гими гу´сто нaсeлёнными

рaйо´нaми плaнe´ты.

A huge hole has been discovered over Antarctica. A reduction in the ozone layer is being observed over many densely populated regions of the planet as well.

Note:

in clauses with a negative verb и may have the meaning either, e.g.

Прeмьeр-мини´стр нe объясни´л, почeму´ инфля´ция поднялa´сь до тaко´го

у´ровня. B eго´ рe´чи нe нaшли´ мe´стa и другиé о´стрыe проблe´мы, The prime minister did not explain why inflation had risen to such a [high] level. Other serious problems found no place either in his speech.

162

5 Vocabulary and idiom

5.1

Neologisms

The radical changes in Russian life since the mid-1980s, the sudden

greatly increased exposure to Western influence, and the introduction of large numbers of new institutions, habits and concepts have led to the flooding of the Russian language with neologisms. These

neologisms relate to almost every area of life, but are especially

numerous in such fields as politics, economics, social problems, law and order, science and technology, education, culture, sport and fashion.

Many of the neologisms are loanwords from other languages,

nowadays mainly from English. Neologisms of this type may require

slight phonetic adaptation, especially when the English word contains the letter c followed by e or i, e.g. гeноци´д, genocide. The majority of them are absorbed into Russian without morphological adaptation, if

they are nouns (e.g. бри´финг, briefing), although some (especially those ending in -и) will be indeclinable (e.g. пaбли´сити (n) publicity).

However, the adjectives and verbs among loanwords, and also many

borrowed nouns, require the addition of Russian affixes to the foreign root (e.g. вeртикa´льный, top-down (of management); митинговa´ть, to take part in meetings (R1, pej); сàмофинaнси´ровaниe, self-financing).

Many other neologisms are derived from existing Russian resources

by various means, including composition of acronyms (e.g. бомж, vagrant), affixation (e.g. тeнeви´к, person who operates in the shadow economy) and polysemanticisation (e.g. отмывa´ть/отмы´ть, to launder (money)), perhaps on the basis of some foreign model (e.g. я´стрeб, hawk, used in a figurative sense).

The following section very briefly indicates the main waves of

Russian lexical borrowing. In 5.1.2 and 5.1.3 we provide a small number of examples of very recent loanwords from English and of

neologisms derived wholly or partly from existing Russian words or

roots. These words belong in R2, and may therefore be used in most

contexts, unless otherwise indicated. In 5.1.4 we deal with slang of various sorts. Section 5.1.5 looks at the large body of new terminology that relates to computing.

5.1.1

Western loanwords in Russian

A large number of words have entered Russian from non-Slavonic

peoples and languages at various times in its history, for instance: from the Varangians who established the Riurikid dynasty in the ninth

century (e.g. я´корь (m), anchor); from the Turkic nomads who inhabited the southern steppes in the early Middle Ages (e.g. ло´шaдь

163

Vocabulary and idiom

(f ), horse); from Greek around the time of the conversion of Russia to Christianity in the tenth century (e.g. a´нгeл, angel; eвa´нгeлиe, the Gospels); from the Tatars who ruled over Russia from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries (e.g. дe´ньги (pl), money; тaмо´жня, customs; ярлы´к, label ); from German, from the time of Peter the Great at the beginning of the eighteenth century (e.g. бaнк, bank; унивeрситe´т, university; флю´гeр, weather-vane); from French, from the middle of the eighteenth century on (e.g. жилe´т, waistcoat; оркe´стр, orchestra; пьe´сa, play).

In the twentieth century a huge number of words of foreign,

especially English, origin entered Russian, e.g. aвтострa´дa, motorway; грeйпфру´т, grapefruit; джaз, jazz; коктe´йль (m), cocktail; комбa´йн, combine (harvester); тa´нкeр, tanker ; трa´улeр, trawler; троллe´йбус, trolleybus (all borrowed in the 1930s); aквaлa´нг, aqualung; бaдминто´н, badminton; бики´ни (n, indecl), bikini; хо´бби (n, indecl), hobby (all in the post-Stalinist period when Zhdanovism abated and attitudes towards

things Western relaxed).

The influx of borrowings from English has been particularly rapid

since the introduction of glaśnost by Gorbacho´v in the mid-1980s and the subsequent break-up of the Soviet Union. 1 These neologisms had meanings which existing Russian words did not convey, or at least did not convey with the necessary flavour, e.g. бeстсe´ллeр, bestseller ; вa´учeр, voucher; глобaлизa´ция, globalisation; диa´спорa, diaspora; до´нор, donor ; импи´чмeнт, impeachment (which in application to Russian political life only became possible with the establishment of a bicameral parliament); инновa´ция, innovation; инфрaструкту´рa, infrastructure; клип, clip (i.e. short TV item); консe´нсус, consensus; консо´рциум, consortium; корру´пция, corruption (in political and financial sense); ло´бби (n, indecl) lobby (i.e. pressure group), лобби´ровaниe, lobbying, and лобби´ст, lobbyist; мaрaфо´н, marathon (in fig sense); мaфио´зи

(m, indecl), member of the mafia, and мa´фия, mafia; мeнтaлитe´т, mentality; нaркоби´знeс (illegal) drugs business; нaркомa´ния, drug addiction; но´у-хa´у (pl, indecl), know-how; порноби´знeс, pornography business; приоритe´т, priority, and приоритe´тный, having priority; рe´йтинг, rating; рeспондe´нт, respondent, e.g. to questionnaire; рок-му´зыкa, rock music; рэ´кeт, racket (i.e. crime), and рэкeти´р, racketeer ; спо´нсор, sponsor (also sugar-daddy, i.e. man who keeps a mistress); тинэ´йджeр, teenager ; три´ллeр, thriller; фa´кс, fax; хaри´змa, charisma, and хaризмaти´чeский, charismatic; хо´спис, hospice; чa´ртeрный рeйс, charter flight.

A particularly large number of the loanwords of the late twentieth

century had to do with the new economic conditions in which

centralised planning and state ownership were giving way to private

ownership and a free market, e.g. бро´кeр, broker; гипeринфля´ция, hyperinflation; дивидe´нд, dividend; ди´лeр, dealer (on stock exchange); инвe´стор, investor; индeксa´ция, indexation; оффшо´рный, offshore; привaтизa´ция, privatisation, and привaтизи´ровaть (impf and pf ), to privatise; хо´лдинг-компa´ния, holding company. Other foreign words relating to economic matters that had already been borrowed in

164

5.1

Neologisms

pre-revolutionary and early Soviet times achieved a new currency in

the post-communist period, e.g. a´кция, share, equity; aрe´ндa, leasing; би´знeс (tone now neutral), business (i.e. economic activity); би´ржa, stock exchange.

5.1.2

Recent loanwords from English

Although loanwords from English are of course particularly easy for

English-speaking learners of Russian to grasp and deploy, they do need to be studied carefully. For one thing a loanword may be used in a

much narrower sense than its equivalent in the language from which it is borrowed. Thus и´мидж means image only in the sense of character as perceived by the public; крaйм, crime, and суици´д, suicide, denote not an individual action but only an organised social phenomenon; and

сeкс, sex, has the relatively restricted meaning of sexual activity.

Moreover, once accommodated by a language a loanword takes on a

life of its own. It may acquire new meaning and even become a false

friend (as have many of the faux amis in 3.5). English-speakers should also be aware that stress in a Russian loanword may fall on a syllable different from the one on which they would expect to find it, as in

мaркe´тинг, marketing, монито´ринг, monitoring, and пeнa´льти, penalty (sporting term).

It is also sensible to use very recent loanwords from English with

some caution, since their position in the language may still be insecure and some of them will in due course be discarded. Furthermore such

words may be perceived in different ways by different native speakers.

While in some circles use of western loanwords may give the speech

of the user an attractively cosmopolitan air, in others the alien tinge that they lend to speech may be unwelcome. It should also be

remembered that many neologisms may be incomprehensible to large

numbers of Russians, particularly to older people, who find it hard to keep abreast of the changes that are taking place, and to the poorly educated, who are unfamiliar with the Western languages and societies from which the new words and concepts are drawn.

There follows a short list of some English words and phrases that

have been recently borrowed or that have recently acquired new

meaning:

бa´ксы (pl; gen бa´ксов)

bucks (i.e. dollars)

бeбиси´ттeр

babysitter

брeнд

brand (in its commercial sense)

грaнт

grant

дeфо´лт

collapse of the rouble in August 1998

имиджмe´йкeр

image-maker

импи´чмeнт

impeachment

индикa´тор

indicator (e.g. political, sociological)

165

Vocabulary and idiom

кa´стинг

casting ( for film, TV )

ки´ллeр

hitman

клони´ровaть(ся)

to clone/be cloned

мe´нeджeр

manager (but not the top person; the

Russian term is not so prestigious as

manager)

мe´ссeдж

( political ) message

ньюсмe´йкeр

newsmaker

олигa´рхи

oligarchs (i.e. men who have accumulated

enormous wealth as a result of

privatisation of Soviet state resources)

пиa´р

пиa´рить

to promote, plug

пиa´рщик

PR man/woman, spin-doctor

сaспe´нс

suspense (of novels and films)

сèконд-хe´нд

second-hand

ток-шо´у

talk show

хe´длaйн

headline

хэ´ппeнинг

a happening (i.e. event)

эксклюзи´вноe интeрвью´

exclusive interview

5.1.3

Neologisms derived from existing Russian words

The following list contains a small number of neologisms (phrases as well as words) derived from the resources of Russian rather than

foreign languages, although some of them contain elements that were

originally borrowed (e.g. нeфтeдо´ллaры). The list includes existing words that have recently taken on new meaning in certain circles (e.g.

вмeняéмый), words formed through composition (e.g. бaнкомa´т) and phraseological calques (рaскa´чивaниe ло´дки).

Many neologisms of this sort, particularly those that are used in an ironic or jocular way, may be classified as slang, to which the next section is devoted.

The polysemanticisation that some of the words in this section

illustrate can of course enrich a language. However, when it results in the creation of clicheś or vogue expressions with little substance, as is the case with some of the words and phrases given below, then equally polysemanticisation may lead to a certain linguistic impoverishment, the sort of inflation to which reference was made in 1.6.

бaнкомa´т

cashpoint

боeви´к

combatant, fighter, now used e.g. of

militant fundamentalists, e.g.

чeчe´нскиe боeвики´, Chechen fighters

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5.1

Neologisms

бюджe´тник

sb who is on the state payroll

включa´ть/включи´ть счётчик

to start the clock ticking (lit to switch

on the meter)

вмeняéмый

reasonable (originally a legal term

meaning responsible, of sound mind )

Bор до´лжeн сидe´ть

A thief should be in prison (said

в тюрьмe´.

about the oligarchs (see 5.1.2

above); a quotation from a popular

film).

Bосто´к – дe´ло то´нкоe.

lit The East is a delicate matter (said as

counsel of caution when dealing

with Eastern nations which

function in a way unfamiliar to

Europeans; also a quotation from a

popular film).

во´тум довe´рия/нeдовe´рия

vote of confidence/no confidence

грaждa´нскоe нeповиновe´ниe

civil disobedience

гумaнитa´рнaя по´мощь

humanitarian aid

дaвa´ть/дaть зeлёный свeт

to give the green light

зaбивa´ть/зaби´ть гол в свои´

to score an own goal

воро´тa

зa дeржa´ву оби´дно.

I feel for my country (i.e. because it is

suffering or being humiliated;

another quotation from a popular

film).

зaшкa´ливaть/зaшкa´лить

to send off the scale ( he went through

(eго´ зaшкa´лило)

the ceiling/went ballistic)

знa´ковоe собы´тиe

meaningful event, i.e. sign of the

times

конвeрти´руeмaя вaлю´тa

convertible currency

мa´лый би´знeс

small business

многопaрти´йнaя систe´мa

multi-party system

нaло´г нa добa´влeнную

Value Added Tax ( VAT)

сто´имость (HдC)

нeтрудовыé дохо´ды

illegal earnings

нeфтeдо´ллaры

petro-dollars, i.e. foreign currency

earned by export of Russian oil

о´боротни в пого´нaх

lit werewolves with epaulettes (i.e.

police who are themselves engaged

in criminal activity)

о´бщeство с огрaни´чeнной

limited liability company

отвe´тствeнностью

167

Vocabulary and idiom

однознa´чный/однознa´чно

lit simple, monosemantic; used to

describe (over-)simplified or

black-and-white approach to

complex issues

озву´чивaть/озву´чить

to publicise, give voice to

ору´жиe мa´ссового

weapons of mass destruction

уничтожe´ния

отмывa´ниe дe´нeг

money-laundering

охо´тa зa вe´дьмaми

witch hunt

порну´хa

porn

постсовe´тскоe прострa´нство

post-Soviet space

рaскa´чивaниe ло´дки

rocking the boat

рeжи´м

in the sense of mode, e.g. в

обы´чном рeжи´мe, in normal mode

рокиро´вкa кa´дров

reshuffle (lit castling [chess term] of

personnel )

ры´ночнaя эконо´микa

market economy

сидe´ть нa иглe´

to be addicted (lit to sit on the needle)

сидe´ть нa нeфтяно´й иглe´

to be dependent on oil (said of the

contemporary Russian economy)

силови´к

member of security forces, which

are known collectively as силовa´я

структу´рa

тea´тр одногоáктёрa

one-man band (lit one-actor theatre)

тeнeвa´я эконо´микa

shadow economy

тeнeви´к

person operating in the shadow

economy

тру´бкa

mobile ( telephone)

у´зник со´вeсти

prisoner of conscience

утe´чкa мозго´в

brain drain

чeлно´к

originally shuttle; now also sb who

goes abroad to buy goods cheaply

and resells them in Russia for profit

чeловe´чeский фa´ктор

the human factor

чeрну´хa

the negative side of life or its

depiction

чeтвёртaя влaсть

the fourth estate, i.e. the media

It has also been pointed out, for example by Ryazanova-Clarke and

Wade (see Sources), that with the re-emergence of the Church as an

officially acceptable institution in Russia in the post-Soviet era new life has been given to words and expressions with a religious colouring,

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5.1

Neologisms

including some Slavonicisms embedded in biblical expressions, e.g.

всуé, in vain; глaс вопию´щeго в пусты´нe, a voice in the wilderness; зeмля´

обeтовa´ннaя, the promised land; зeни´цa о´кa, the apple of one’s eye; злaто´й

тeлe´ц, the golden calf; и и´жe с ни´ми, and others of that ilk; ищи´тe и

обря´щeтe, seek and ye shall find; о´ко зa о´ко, зуб зa зуб, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth; при´тчa во язы´цeх, the talk of the town. These expressions may have a range of functions. They might for example be used for rhetorical purposes (especially in the language of nationalistic politicians and commentators), or as a means available to people of

more Westernist outlook of disparaging nationalistic forces, or simply as a jocular device in everyday speech. They may accordingly be

classified as nowadays belonging either to R3 or R1 depending on

their context.

5.1.4

Slang

Slang is a stratum of lexis that defies the standard and is unorthodox and more or less subversive. It is associated particularly with youth and marginal groups. The words which abound in youth slang

(молодёжный слeнг) relate especially to parents, sex, drink, drugs, fighting and the police, for instance: (to denote parents) ро´дичи (lit relatives in R1), шнурки´ (lit shoe-laces); and (in the meaning to have sex) попa´риться, попи´литься, потeлeфо´нить, поудa´читься (all pf ). Further varieties of slang are associated with business (дeлово´й слeнг, о´фисный

жaрго´н), the criminal underworld (воровскоé aрго´ (indecl), блaтно´й

язы´к, or фe´ня) and the world of computer-users (see 5.1.5 below).

Some slang is derived from foreign words, e.g. гри´ны, ‘ greens’ (i.e.

dollars; gen гри´нов); дри´нкaть, to drink; крeдитну´ться, to get a loan; о´лды, oldies (i.e. parents).

There follows a short list of examples of slang of one sort or another that have been in vogue at some time over the past ten years or so.

However, foreign learners should use such words with caution, both

because slang is by definition non-standard and because it tends to

become dated more quickly than other areas of lexis (indeed some of

the expressions listed here that are now modish may well seem stale by the time this book is published).

бa´бки (pl; gen бa´бок)

money

брaт

member of criminal fraternity

брaтвa´

criminal fraternity

глюк

hallucination; У нeго´ глю´ки, He’s

hallucinating/seeing things.

дeдовщи´нa

bullying of new recruits by older

soldiers (дeды´, i.e. grand-dads)

дe´мбeль (m)

demobilisation

дeмокрaтизa´тор

(policeman’s) truncheon

169

Vocabulary and idiom

дeрeвя´нныe

roubles (i.e. wooden things)

зaбивa´ть/зaби´ть

to arrange, book, secure, e.g. зaби´ть

сто´лик, to get a table (in bar, restaurant)

зaби´то.

It’s settled.

зaкa´зчик

sb who puts out a contract, i.e. hires a

hitman

зaкa´зывaть/зaкaзa´ть

to put out a contract on sb (i.e. to arrange

кого´-н

to have sb killed)

зaморо´чивaться

to get into/caught up in a mess

зaморо´чки (sg зaморо´чкa;

snags, hitches

gen pl зaморо´чeк)

зeлёныe

greens (i.e. dollars; = гри´ны); also

people concerned with protection of

the environment as a political issue

кaйф

kicks

ки´скa

very attractive girl

клёвый (adv клёво)

brill, knockout, fantastic

(now dated)

коси´ть/зaкоси´ть

to dodge (military service)

(от слу´жбы)

крёстный отe´ц

godfather, i.e. leader of criminal clan

круто´й (adv кру´то)

cool, wicked

кры´шa

protection (i.e. criminal racket)

крышeвa´ть

to give protection

лом

unwillingness to do sth because one is

too lazy, e.g. мнe э´то в лом, I can’t be

bothered.

лох

sucker, dolt

лохотро´н

scam

мeнт

policeman

моби´лa

mobile (telephone); slang variant of

моби´льник (R1), which is also a

recent neologism

нaдри´нкaться (pf )

to get pissed

нae´зд

pressure, threat

нaeзжa´ть/нae´хaть нa

to threaten/put pressure on sb

кого´-н

нaл (= нaли´чныe (дe´ньги))

cash

обло´м

flop, failure, fiasco

обломи´ться (pf )

to make a wrong decision, cock sth up

отморо´зок

freak; person without any principles

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5.1

Neologisms

отрывa´ться/оторвa´ться

to have a good time, to have fun

оття´гивaться/оттяну´ться

= отрывa´ться/оторвa´ться

пaрковa´ть/зaпaрковa´ть

to invest in something secure (lit to park

бa´бки

one’s money)

прикa´лывaться (impf; R1)

to joke (make cutting remarks)

прико´л (R1)

(barbed) joke

проко´л

foul-up, cock-up, gaffe

рaзбо´ркa

showdown, infighting, sorting-out

рaсколо´ть

lit to chop, split; in new slang to make sb

talk, e.g. Meня´ нe рaско´лeшь, You

won’t get anything out of me.

рaскру´ткa (adj

hype ( hyped ), e.g. рaскру´чeннaя

рaскру´чeнный)

пeви´цa, hyped singer

слeзa´ть/слeзть с иглы´

to come off drugs (lit to come off the needle)

смоли´ть (impf )

to smoke a lot (including hashish)

срывa´ться/сорвa´ться

to come off the wagon (i.e. to start drinking

again)

стёб

buffoonery, mockery, self-mockery, perhaps

with implication that the fun touches

a raw nerve

стрaши´лкa

horror film

то´рмоз

bore, slow tedious person (lit brake)

тусовa´ться

to hang about together

тусо´вкa

get-together, do

устрa´ивaть/устро´ить бу´чу

to have a fight (= дрa´ться/подрa´ться)

(now dated)

фиг

indicates rude gesture; equivalent to

damn in some phrases, e.g. Mнe всё по´

фиг, I couldn’t give a damn.

Note:

пофиги´зм, couldn’t-care-less attitude. See also 5.5 on interjections indicating annoyance.

хaля´вa

freebie; нa хaля´ву, for free

чa´йник

layman, non-specialist, not an expert

(lit tea-pot)

шту´кa

a thousand (in roubles or foreign

currency)

штукaту´ркa

heavily made-up woman

(lit plastering)

5.1.5

Computing terminology

One area of vocabulary which has greatly expanded in recent years is the field of terminology relating to computing and the internet.

171

Vocabulary and idiom

Neologisms in this field include both loanwords (almost entirely

from English) and existing Russian words that have taken on new

meaning.

basic components

пeрсонa´льный компью´тeр

personal computer

and functions of

рaбо´чий стол

desktop

the PC (основныé

монито´р/дисплe´й

monitor

компонe´нты и

фу´нкции ПК)

экрa´н

screen

клaвиaту´рa

keyboard

клa´вишa

key

мышь (f ), мы´шкa

mouse

жёсткий диск

hard disk

ги´бкий диск

soft disk, floppy

лa´зeрный компa´кт-диск

лa´зeрный прои´грывaтeль

CD player

диск DVD

DVD

при´нтeр

printer

звуковa´я плa´тa

sound card

скa´нeр

scanner

модe´м

modem

устро´йство

device

хрaнe´ниe информa´ции

information storage

многозaдa´чность (f )

multitasking

пa´мять (f )

memory

using the

по´льзовaтeль (m)

user

computer

опeрaцио´ннaя систe´мa

operating system

(испо´льзовaниe

пaро´ль (m)

password

компью´тeрa)

прогрa´ммa

program

устaно´вкa

installation

пaнe´ль (f ) инструмe´нтов

toolbar

портфe´ль (m)

briefcase

мeню´ (n, indecl)

menu

щёлкaть/щёлкнуть

to click (on a button)

(нa кно´пкe)

(двойно´й) щeлчо´к

(double) click

формaти´ровaниe

formatting

рeдaкти´ровaниe

editing

копи´ровaниe

copying

пeрeмeщe´ниe

moving

172

5.1

Neologisms

пeрeимeновa´ниe

renaming

вырeзa´ниe

cutting

склe´ивaниe

pasting

выдeлe´ниe

highlighting

встa´вкa

insertion, pasting

удaлe´ниe

deletion

зaмe´нa

replacing

сохрaня´ть/сохрaни´ть

to save

докумe´нт

document

фaйл

file

пa´пкa

folder

тaбли´цa

table

столбe´ц

column

ячe´йкa

cell

тe´мa

subject

окно´

window

знaчо´к

icon

шрифт

font

жи´рный шрифт

bold

курси´в

italics

си´мвол

symbol

прaвописa´ниe

spelling

по умолчa´нию

default

корзи´нa

recycle bin (normally waste bin)

ви´рус

virus

зaщи´тa от ви´русов

virus protection

aнтиви´руснaя прогрa´ммa

antivirus program

commands and

Пуск

Start

control buttons

Oткры´ть

Open

(комa´нды и кно´пки

Прa´вкa

Edit

упрaвлe´ния)

Bид

View

Haйти´

Find

Haзa´д

Back

Bпeрёд

Forward

Cоздa´ть

Create

Bы´рeзaть

Cut

Bстa´вить

Insert

. Удaли´ть

Delete

173

Vocabulary and idiom

Копи´ровaть

Copy

Cохрaни´ть (кaк)

Save (as)

Oтмe´нa

Cancel

Bосстaнови´ть

Restore

Cвeрну´ть

Minimise (lit Roll up)

Paзвeрну´ть

Maximise (lit Unroll )

Пeчa´ть (f )

Print

Приостaнови´ть

Pause

Bы´ход

Exit

зaкры´ть

Close

и´збрaнноe

Favourites (lit Selected )

Oбзо´р

Browse (lit Survey)

Пaрa´мeтры (pl; sg пaрa´мeтр)

Options

Cпрa´вкa

Help

Ярлы´к

Shortcut (lit Label )

Haстро´йкa

Settings

Ce´рвис

Tools

Oчи´стить корзи´ну

Empty recycle bin

Bы´ключить компью´тeр

Shut down computer

Пeрeзaгрузи´ть

Restart

the internet

Mировa´я пaути´нa

World Wide Web

(интeрнe´т, инe´т)

постaвщи´к услу´г интeрнe´тa

internet service provider

подключe´ниe к сe´ти

connecting to the net

онлa´йн (adj онлa´йновый)

online

нaвигa´ция

navigating, surfing

брa´узeр

browser

информaцио´нный портa´л

information gateway

сaйт

site

зaклa´дкa

bookmark

домa´шняя стрaни´чкa

home page

ник

screen name

По´иск

Search

Пeрeхо´д

дa´лee

Next

домо´й

Home

зaгру´зкa

Download

зaгружa´ть/зaгрузи´ть

to download

ви´дeо-конфeрe´нция

video-conference

174

5.1

Neologisms

зaвeршe´ниe сea´нсa

log off

email (элeктро´ннaя

элeктро´нный a´дрeс

email address

по´чтa (R2); eмe´ля,

сообщe´ниe

message

мeйл, мы´ло all R1))

Oт

From

Кому´

To (lit To whom)

Прeдмe´т

Subject

вложe´ниe

attachment

Cоздa´ть сообщe´ниe

Compile/New message

Oтпрa´вить

Send

Oтвe´тить

Reply

Пeрeслa´ть

Forward

отпрaви´тeль (m)

sender

получa´тeль (m)

recipient

почто´вый я´щик

mailbox

входя´щиe

inbox

прeдыду´щee

previous

слe´дующee

next

aдрeсa´т

addressee

a´дрeснaя кни´гa

address book

спи´сок рaссы´лки

mailing list

нeжeлa´тeльнaя по´чтa

junk mail

спaм

spam

собa´чкa (R1)

slang (жaргонизмы;

aпдa´титься/проaпдa´титься

to update

all R1)

броди´лкa

browser (= брa´узeр)

звукову´хa

sound card

зы

PS (because these Cyrillic letters are

produced by the keys that produce p

and s on an English keyboard, and

users do not think it worth

switching to Roman just to key in

these two letters (which in Russian

correspondence are always written

in Roman))

имхо´

in my (humble) opinion (the Russian

form is made up of the initial letters

of the four English words in this

phrase)

клa´вa

keyboard (= клaвиaту´рa); топтa´ть

клa´ву, to type

175

Vocabulary and idiom

клик

click (= щeлчо´к)

по лe´вому/прa´вому кли´ку

mouse left/right click

комп, компa´шкa

computer

кры´сa

mouse (lit rat)

мeссa´гa

message

мы´лить/нaмы´лить

to send by email

про´гa

program

скaчa´ть

download

трaбл

trouble, problem

хa´кeр

hacker

ю´зaть

to use

ю´зeр

user

5.2

Transition words

The words or phrases in the following list are frequently used to link points and give coherence to an argument. Many of them (e.g.

во-пe´рвых, etc.) are by their nature more likely to feature in the written language and the more formal speech of R3 than in the

colloquial language of R1, and may therefore be contrasted with some of the fillers given in the following section.

бeз (вся´кого) сомнe´ния

without (any) doubt

в концe´ концо´в

in the end, after all

в сa´мом дe´лe

indeed (confirms preceding idea)

нa сa´мом дe´лe

in fact (contradicts preceding idea)

во вся´ком слу´чae

in any case

во-пe´рвых

firstly

во-вторы´х

secondly

в-трe´тьих

thirdly

вeдь

you see, you know

вкрa´тцe (R3)

briefly, succinctly

и´бо (R3)

for, i.e. because (cf. Fr car)

итa´к

thus, so

к моeму´/нa´шeму

to my/our regret

приско´рбию (R3)

к тому´ жe

besides

коро´чe говоря´

in short

кро´мe того´

moreover

нaконe´ц

lastly

176

5.3

Fillers

нaоборо´т

on the contrary

нaпримe´р

for example

нeсомнe´нно

undoubtedly

однa´ко

however

одни´м сло´вом

in a word, in short

поэ´тому

consequently

прe´ждe всeго´

first of all, above all

с одно´й стороны´ . . . с

on the one hand . . . on the other hand

друго´й стороны´

сaмо´ собо´й рaзумeéтся

it goes without saying

свeрх того´

moreover

слe´довaтeльно

consequently

слe´дуeт отмe´тить (R3)

it must be noted

тaки´м о´брaзом

in this way

тeм нe мe´нee

nevertheless

тоéсть

that is (to say)

5.3

Fillers

Alongside transitional expressions of the sort exemplified in 5.2, which give coherence to a line of thought, languages have a stock of words or phrases that may be inserted in an utterance for various other purposes.

Such interpolations might represent a speaker’s comment on the

reliability of information (e.g. кa´жeтся), indicate the source or status of the information (e.g. по-моéму), describe the way an idea is expressed (ины´ми словa´ми), make some sort of appeal by a speaker to his or her interlocutor (понимaéшь), or express a speaker’s attitude to what is said (нa бeду´). Often interpolations mean very little, serving mainly to fill out an utterance, perhaps in order to give the speaker time to marshal further thoughts. (Interpolations of this latter sort are known in

Russian as словa´-пaрaзи´ты.) Unlike the transition words given in 5.2

most of the fillers given in this section belong primarily to the more informal spoken register (R1).

In the expressions in the following list which address an interlocutor (e.g. вообрaзи´(тe) (сeбe´)) both the second-person-singular and the second-person-plural forms are given.

ви´дишь/ви´дитe ли

do you see

ви´дно

evidently, obviously

вообрaзи´(тe) (сeбe´)

fancy, just imagine

вот

so there we are

гм

er . . .

говоря´т

they say

177

Vocabulary and idiom

гру´бо вырaжa´ясь

roughly speaking

дeйстви´тeльно

really

допу´стим

let’s suppose, say

други´ми словa´ми

in other words

знaéшь/знaéтe

you know

знaть

evidently, it seems

знa´чит

so, then

извини´(тe)

excuse (me for saying so)

ины´ми словa´ми

= други´ми словa´ми

к сожaлe´нию

unfortunately

к счa´стью

fortunately

кaк бы

sort of, like

конe´чно

of course

кстa´ти (скaзa´ть)

by the way

мe´жду нa´ми

between ourselves

мe´жду про´чим

incidentally

нa бeду´

unfortunately

нe повe´ришь/повe´ритe

you won’t believe it

ну

well

по всeй вeроя´тности

in all probability

по крa´йнeй мe´рe

at least

по прa´вдe скaзa´тъ

to tell the truth

позво´ль(тe)

allow (me to say it)

поми´луй(тe)

pardon (me) (as expression of objection)

понимaéшь/понимaéтe

(do) you understand

по´просту говоря´

to put it simply

прeдстa´вь(тe) сeбe´

imagine

прости´(тe)

forgive (me for saying it)

пря´мо скa´жeм

let’s be frank

сa´моe глa´вноe

the main thing

скaжи´(тe) нa ми´лость

you don’t say (iron)

слу´шaй(тe)

listen

соглaси´шься/соглaси´тeсь

you’ll agree

тaк

тaк скaзa´ть

so to speak

ти´пa

sort of, like

чeго´ до´брого

who knows (anticipating sth unpleasant)

что нaзывaéтся

as they say

178

5.4

Modal particles

5.4

Modal particles

Modal particles are not often encountered in the relatively objective varieties of the formal written language (esp R3a/R3b) but in the

spoken language, and in particular in colloquial conversation, where subjective utterances abound, they are extremely important. However, they are not easy for the English-speaking student to master, since

English often achieves the nuances that particles convey by means of tone of voice or intonation rather than by lexical means. Moreover, the precise meaning or function of the Russian particles is elusive, partly because they are in most cases polysemantic and also because they

interact with word order, phrasal stress and intonation to produce

complex and variable nuances.

This section lists a number of the less elusive functions of the most important modal particles. At the end of the section a list is given of other particles which have a lexical or morphological function rather than a modal one.

(a)

placed at the end of an utterance, exhorts the hearer to give an answer or agree to sth, e.g.

Mоро´жeноe дaть, a?

Want an ice-cream?

Bсё в поря´дкe, a?

Is everything all right then?

Tы гото´в(a)? Поe´дeм, a?

Are you ready? Shall we go then?

(b)

occurs in vocative expressions (see 7.3.1) when a diminutive name is repeated, in which case the particle is placed between the two words in the vocative, e.g.

Taнь, a Taнь! Кaк ты ду´мaeшь,

Tania, what do уоu think, should

мнe нa вe´чeр пойти´?

I go to the party?

Maм, a мaм! Tы помо´жeшь мнe?

Mum! Will you help me?

(c)

placed at the beginning of an utterance, gives a spontaneous link with what has been said or assumed, e.g.

– Oтку´дa э´то у тeбя´ тaко´й

‘Where did you get such a lovely

крaси´вый шaрф?

scarf ?’

– A муж подaри´л.

‘My husband gave it to me as a

present.’

– Mи´тю мо´жно?

‘Can I speak to Mitia?’

– A он нa рaбо´тe.

‘He’s at work.’

– A когдa´ бу´дeт?

‘When will he get home?’

– B шeсть. A кто eго´ спрa´шивaeт?

‘At six. Who’s that asking for

him?’

вeдь

(a)

expresses mild assertion of sth which the speaker considers obvious; sometimes this assertion constitutes an objection to another point of view, e.g.

Beдь инa´чe и быть нe мо´жeт.

For it just couldn’t be otherwise.

179

Vocabulary and idiom

Порa´ у´жинaть. Mы вeдь с утрa´

It’s time to have supper. After all, we

ничeго´ нe e´ли.

haven’t eaten since this morning.

– Tо´ля, нaдe´нь шa´пку.

‘Tolia, put your hat on.’

– He хочу´.

‘I don’t want to.’

– Beдь дe´сять грa´дусов ни´жe

‘But it’s minus 10.’

нуля´.

– He бу´ду читa´ть э´ти кни´ги.

‘I’m not going to read these books.’

– Beдь провa´лишься нa

‘Then you’ll fail your exam.’

экзa´мeнe.

(b)

expresses gentle reproach or warning, e.g.

Hy, хвa´тит! Я вeдь скaзa´л(a), что

That’s enough. I told you not to

нe нa´до шумe´ть.

make a noise.

Tы вeдь совсe´м нe обрaщaéшь

You just don’t pay any attention to

внимa´ния нa мои´ словa´.

what I say.

(c)

expresses surprise at an unexpected discovery, e.g.

– Гдe моя´ шa´пкa?

‘Where’s my hat?’

– Я eё нa вe´шaлку повe´сил.

‘I hung it on the peg.’

– A вeдь eё тaм нeт.

‘But it isn’t there.’

Я вeдь нe по´нял(a´), что онa´ ужe´

I hadn’t realised that she was already

aспирa´нткa.

a postgraduate.

(d)

in questions, encourages sb to give the answer the speaker wants to

hear; in this sense fulfils the same role as the English tail question, as in the following examples:

Tы вeдь побу´дeшь у нaс?

You will come and stay with us for a

bit, won’t you?

Beдь нe опоздaéтe?

You won’t be late, will you?

вот

(a)

expresses demonstrative meaning, which may be rendered in English

by this or here, e.g.

Oни´ живу´т вот в э´том до´мe.

They live in this house here.

Попро´буй вот э´тот сaлa´т. Oн

Try this salad here. It’s very nice.

о´чeнь вку´сный.

(b)

with interrogative pronouns and adverbs, lends emphasis of the sort

rendered in English by the verb to be, e.g.

Bот гдe он упa´л.

This is where he fell over.

Bот почeму´ я посовe´товaл(a)

That’s why I advised you not to go

тeбe´ нe выходи´ть.

out.

Bот что я имe´ю в виду´.

This is what I have in mind.

(c)

with the future tense, may express promise, resolution, warning or

threat, e.g.

Я бро´шу пить. Bот уви´дишь.

I’ll give up drinking. You’ll see.

180

5.4

Modal particles

здeсь ско´льзко. Bот упaдёшь

It’s slippery. You’ll fall.

сeйчa´с!

Tы рaзби´л(a) окно´. Bот рaсскaжу´ You’ve broken the window. I’ll tell роди´тeлям о твои´х продe´лкaх.

your parents about your pranks.

(d)

in exclamations, may express such sentiments as surprise or

indignation, in which case the particle itself is stressed, e.g.

– Прeзидe´нт у´мeр.

‘The president has died.’

– Bо´т кaк?

‘Really?’

Bо´т кaк ты тeпe´рь живёшь!

So that’s the way you live now, is it?

Bо´т что ты дe´лaeшь по вeчeрa´м!

So that’s what you do in the evenings.

Пья´нствуeшь.

You get drunk.

(e)

in exclamations, may also intensify the speaker’s emotional response to sth, e.g.

Bот хорошо´, что нaс нe зaбы´ли!

It’s so nice that you haven’t forgotten

us.

дa

(a)

expresses objection or remonstration in a very familiar tone, e.g.

дa я бы нa твоём мe´стe э´того нe I wouldn’t have done that if I’d been сдe´лaл(a).

in your place.

(b)

expresses agreement or concession (see also ну (d), уж (b)), e.g.

– Mо´жно, я сeйчa´с вы´йду?

‘Can I leave now?’

– дa выходи´, мнe всё рaвно´.

‘Go ahead, it’s all the same to me.’

– Я, пожa´луй, спрошу´ Óлю.

‘I might ask Olia.’

– дa спроси´. Tо´лько вряд ли

‘Go ahead and ask her. But I don’t

онa´ тeбe´ скa´жeт.

suppose she’ll tell you.’

(c)

expresses insistent suggestion, friendly advice or reassurance, e.g.

дa нe шуми´тe. Я рaбо´тaю.

Don’t make a racket. I’m working.

дa нe бeспоко´йся, пa´пa сeйчa´с

Don’t worry, daddy’ll come back in a

подойдёт.

minute.

(d)

in a vague answer, carries a casual, indifferent tone, e.g.

– Кудa´ онa´ уe´хaлa?

‘Where’s she gone off to?’

– дa нe знa´ю. Говоря´т в Cиби´рь. ‘Oh, I don’t know. Siberia I think.’

(e)

with an indefinite pronoun containing the particle -нибудь, expresses certainty against a background of vagueness, e.g.

что´-нибудь дa ку´пим.

We’re sure to buy something or other.

Кого´-нибудь дa зaстa´нeшь до´мa. You’re bound to find someone in.

(f )

In exclamatory questions, expresses amazement, e.g.

дa рa´звe ты нe знa´л(a), что он

Surely you knew he was married?

жeнa´т?

181

Vocabulary and idiom

дa зaблуди´ться срeди´ бe´лa дня!

What! Get lost in broad daylight?

He мо´жeт быть.

That’s not possible.

eщё

(a)

expresses a feeling on the speaker’s part that sth is unreasonable or does not correspond to reality, e.g.

A eщё мeхa´ник!

And you call yourself a mechanic!

A eщё говори´шь, что

And you still say you’ve no aptitude

нeспосо´бeн/нeспосо´бнa к

for music!

му´зыкe.

(b)

expresses emphatic affirmation or denial, e.g.

Eщё бы!

I’ll say!

– Hy, нae´лся?

‘Have you had enough to eat?’

– Eщё кaк нae´лся!

‘I’ll say.’

жe

(a)

categoric emphasis on what the speaker considers a compelling point

or an indisputable fact, e.g.

Pa´звe ты идёшь нa рaбо´ту? У

Surely you’re not going to work?

тeбя´ жe тeмпeрaту´рa.

You’ve got a temperature after all.

Я нe умe´ю игрa´ть в шa´хмaты.

I can’t play chess. You yourself know

Bы жe сa´ми знaéтe, что нe умe´ю.

very well that I can’t.

(b)

with imperatives, expresses insistence on the part of the speaker

together with impatience or irritation, feigned at least, that the order has to be given or repeated, e.g.

Aлёшa! иди´ жe скорeé сюдa´.

Aliosha, come here at once.

(c)

in questions, may indicate that the speaker cannot envisage or accept any answer other than the one he or she invites, e.g.

Bы жe нe солжётe?

You surely wouldn’t tell a lie, would

you?

Tы жe нe бу´дeшь утвeрждa´ть,

You’re surely not going to say you

что нe знaéшь?

don’t know, are you?

(d)

in questions framed with an interrogative pronoun or adverb, may

express incredulity or perplexity on the speaker’s part, in which case it may correspond to the English suffix -ever, e.g.

Гдe жe ты был(a´)?

Wherever have you been?

Почeму´ жe вы возрaжaéтe нa

Why on earth do you object to this?

э´то?

что жe eму´ подaри´ть нa

Whatever can we give him for

Pождeство´?

Christmas?

(e)

may also be used in questions in which the speaker asks for precise

information, e.g.

Bы говори´тe, что кто´-то поги´б.

You say that somebody was killed.

Кто жe поги´б?

Who exactly was killed?

182

5.4

Modal particles

Bы то´жe живётe в цe´нтрe

So you live in the centre as well?

го´родa? Ha кaко´й жe у´лицe?

Which street do you live in?

Note 1

жe may be shortened to ж.

жe is generally placed immediately after the word or phrase which it highlights.

(a)

expresses emphasis, in which case it has the same function as и´мeнно

(see note at end of 4.2), e.g.

Oнa´ былa´ нa конфeрe´нции. Mы

She was at the conference. That’s

тaм и познaко´мились.

where we met.

Mы подошли´ к кaфe´. ‘Bот тут и

We approached a cafe´. ‘This is where

пообe´дaeм’, скaзa´лa онa´.

we’re going to eat,’ she said.

(b)

may correspond to дa´жe, even, e.g.

Кa´жeтся, нa´шa комa´ндa

Apparently our side won, and I

вы´игрaлa, a я и нe слы´шaл(a) об

didn’t even hear about it.

э´том.

(c)

may correspond to хотя´, although, e.g.

и тeпло´ нa у´лицe, a я нe хочу´

I don’t want to go out, although it’s

выходи´ть.

warm outside.

(d)

may increase uncertainty, e.g.

– Mо´жeт быть, вы читa´ли э´ту

‘You may have read this book.’

кни´гу?

– Mо´жeт быть, и читa´л(a).

‘ I may have done.’

(e)

with an interjection, may intensify an exclamation, e.g.

Ox, и обо´рвыш ты!

God, you’re scruffy!

Oн умeéт игрa´ть нa скри´пкe.

He сan play the violin. Oh, and

Ox и игрaéт!

how he plays!

-кa

(a)

attached to imperative forms, produces gentle informal exhortation or friendly advice, e.g.

лe´ночкa, вы´йди-кa сюдa´ нa

Lenochka, come out here for a

мину´тку.

moment would you.

Посмотри´тe-кa, кaк онa´

Just look how pretty she’s become.

похорошe´лa.

Поди´тe-кa вы отдыхa´ть. Bы

Go and have a rest. You’ve worn

нaрaбо´тaлись.

yourself out with work.

(b)

attached to an imperative used in a conditional sense (see 11.9,

note 3), expresses a challenge to sb to do sth perceived as difficult, e.g.

Поговори´тe-кa с э´тим пa´рнeм –

You try speaking to this lad and

уви´дитe, кaко´й он тру´дный.

you’ll see how difficult he is.

183

Vocabulary and idiom

Посто´й-кa нa моро´зe бeз

You just try standing out in the frost

пeрчa´ток!

without gloves on.

(c)

attached to the first-person-singular form of a perfective verb, indicates irresolution in the speaker, e.g.

A пойду´-кa я нa рaбо´ту пeшко´м.

I think I might walk to work.

Куплю´-кa до´чкe но´вую ю´бку.

Perhaps I’ll buy my daughter a new

skirt.

ли

(a)

with a perfective infinitive, expresses vague intention or hesitancy on the part of the speaker, e.g.

B тea´тр что ли сходи´ть?

Shall we go to the theatre? I don’t

know.

Прeдупрeди´ть ли мнe их?

Should I perhaps warn them?

He купи´ть ли конфe´т?

Shouldn’t we buy some sweets?

(b)

combined with нe, expresses a very polite request or suggestion (which may be ironical), e.g.

He скa´жeтe ли вы мнe, кaк

Could you possibly tell me the way to

пройти´ нa Крa´сную пло´щaдь?

Red Square?

He мо´жeшь ли ты помолчa´ть?

You couldn’t possibly be quiet for a

bit, could you?

He потру´дитeсь ли вы вы´йти?

Would you be so kind as to leave?

(iron)

ну

(a)

exhorts sb to say or do sth, e.g.

Hy, кaк дeлa´?

Well, how are things?

Hy, говори´, гдe ты побывa´л(a).

Cоme оn, tell us where you’ve been.

Hy, пойдёмтe.

Well, let’s be going.

(b)

reinforces the expression of attitudes such as objection, bewilderment, annoyance, frustration, e.g.

Hy что мнe с тобо´й дe´лaть?

What on earth am I to do with you?

Cовсe´м нe слу´шaeшься.

You just don’t do what l say.

Hy ско´лько рaз тeбe´ говори´ть,

However many times have I got to

что нa´до снять ту´фли?

tell you to take your shoes off ?

(c)

introduces expressive exclamations, e.g.

Hy, кaкa´я удa´чa!

Well, what a stroke of luck!

Hy, конe´чно!

But of course!

Hy, у´жaс!

But that’s terrible!

(d)

expresses qualified permission or acceptance (see also дa (b)), e.g.

– Я устa´л(a).

‘I’m tired.’

– Hy, пeрeдохнём.

‘Let’s take a breather then.’

– Mо´жно, я посмотрю´ нa вaш

‘Can I have a look at your

мотоци´кл?

motor-bike?’

– Hу, посмотри´тe.

‘All right.’

184

5.4

Modal particles

(e)

in D, precedes a verb in the infinitive to stress the intensity of an action, e.g.

Haчaлся´ спор, a он ну´ кричa´ть!

An argument broke out, and did

he shout!

(f )

in D, with the accusative form of a personal pronoun, expresses strong disapproval, e.g.

A ну´ тeбя´!

Get lost!

– Принимa´й лeкa´рство.

‘Take the medicine.’

– Hуéго´!

‘To hell with it!’

(g)

also acts as a filler when the speaker is trying to collect her or his thoughts, e.g.

He знa´ю. Hy . . . что скaзa´ть?

I don’t know. Well . . . What can I

Попытa´юсь узнa´ть.

say? I’ll try to find out.

тaк

(a)

introduces a suggestion in response to a setback, in which case тaк

often corresponds to English then, e.g.

– здeсь нeт мы´лa.

‘There’s no soap here.’

– Taк принeси´!

‘Then bring some.’

Eго´ нe бу´дeт? Taк мы обойдёмся

He won’t be there? Then we’ll get

бeз нeго´.

by without him.

(b)

with the same word used twice (тaк being placed between the word or

words used twice), indicates concession on the part of the speaker, or acceptance of a suggestion, or that some property is fully manifested, e.g.

– дaвa´йтe встрe´тимся в кино´.

‘Let’s meet in the cinema. Is that

Cоглa´сны?

OK?’

– B кино´ тaк в кино´.

‘The cinema it is then.’

– Кaк поe´дeм домо´й? дaвa´й нa

‘How shall we get home? Shall we get

тaкси´?

a taxi?’

– Ha тaкси´ тaк нa тaкси´.

‘All right then, we’ll get a taxi.’

B Cиби´ри зимо´й уж хо´лодно тaк

God, it’s cold in Siberia in winter.

хо´лодно.

(c)

expresses approximation with time, distance, quantity, etc., e.g.

– Когдa´ приe´дeшь?

‘When will you get here?’

– чaсо´в тaк в шeсть.

‘About six o’clock.’

– дaлeко´ до цe´нтрa?

‘Is it far to the centre?’

– Taк киломe´трa двa.

‘About two kilometres or so.’

– Cко´лько вe´сит ры´бa?

‘How much does the fish weigh?’

– Килогрa´мм тaк пять.

‘About five kilos.’

185

Vocabulary and idiom

-то

(a)

stresses sth, e.g.

B то´м-то и дe´ло.

That’s just it.

зо´нтик-то нe зaбу´дь. идёт

Don’t forget your umbrella. It’s

дождь.

raining.

(b)

in stressing part of an utterance, may reinforce a contrast, e.g.

Cтe´ны-то ужe´ построéны, но

The walls are built but there isn’t a

кры´ши eщё нeт.

roof yet.

Я-то вы´полнил(a) своё обeщa´ниe,

I’ve fulfilled my promise, but you’re

a вы мe´длитe.

procrastinating.

(c)

in constructions in which a word is repeated and in which -то stands after the word when it is first used, expresses concession, e.g.

Писa´ть-то пишу´, a онa´ нe читaéт

She doesn’t read my letters, although

мои´ пи´сьмa.

I make a point of writing to her.

зaнимa´ться-то зaнимa´лся/

I failed the exam, although I

зaнимa´лaсь, a нa экзa´мeнe

worked really hard.

провaли´лся/провaли´лaсь.

(d)

in certain phrases expressing strong negation, has a euphemistic

nuance, e.g.

Кни´гa нe осо´бeнно-то интeрe´снa.

The book’s pretty dull.

Mнe нe о´чeнь-то хотe´лось

I really didn’t want to talk to her.

говори´ть с нeй.

He тa´к-то про´сто бы´ло eго´

It wasn’t all that easy to calm him

успоко´ить.

down.

(e)

in exclamations with a tone of admiration or wonder, e.g.

Oнa´ крaсa´вицa. Кaкиé глaзa´-то!

She’s beautiful. What wonderful

eyes!

Haро´ду-то нa ры´нкe! что тaм

What a lot of people at the market!

продaю´т?

What are they selling there?

(f )

lends intimacy or informality to an utterance, e.g.

B тeáтр-то ходи´л(a) вчeрa´?

Did you go to the theatre yesterday

then?

‘Кaк тeбя´ звaть-то?’ – спроси´л

‘What should we call you then?’

врaч рeбёнкa.

the doctor asked the child.

Note:

used as a particle -то is always attached to the word that it is intended to emphasise; it cannot stand on its own and never bears the stress.

уж

(a)

intensifies some word denoting affirmation, negation or degree, e.g.

– Tы устa´л(a)?

‘Are you tired?’

– дa уж. E´лe иду´.

‘ I certainly am. I can hardly move.’

Oн уж совсe´м пeрeстa´л зaходи´ть

He’s completely given up calling on

к нaм.

us.

186

5.4

Modal particles

(b)

expresses acceptance or concession, perhaps reluctant, e.g.

– дaй мнe свой зо´нтик нa´ дeнь. ‘Will you lend me your umbrella for the day?’

– Бeри´ уж, то´лько нe зaбу´дь eго´ ‘All right, but don’t leave it on the в поéздe.

train.’

– дым тeбe´ мeшaéт? Mо´жeт,

‘Is the smoke bothering you? Shall

попроси´ть, чтоб нe кури´ли?

we ask them to stop smoking?’

– Уж пусть они´ ку´рят.

‘Oh, let them smoke.’

(c)

with an imperative, lends the order a blunt but good-natured tone, an air of camaraderie, e.g.

Mолчи´ уж об э´том. Teбe´ нe´чeм

You’d better keep quiet about that.

горди´ться.

You’ve got nothing to be proud of.

иди´ уж.

Get a move on.

хоть (бы)

(a)

may mean if only or at least, or may have the same meaning as дa´жe, хотя´ (бы)

even, оr дa´жe e´сли, even if, especially in set phrases, e.g.

Приeзжa´й хоть нa оди´н дeнь.

Do come, if only just for a day.

Aх, хоть бы одно´ письмо´

Oh, if only there were just one

от нeё!

letter from her!

Xоть убe´й, нe скaжу´.

I couldn’t tell you to save my life.

(lit Even if you kill me I won’t tell

you)

(b)

introduces an example which readily springs to the speaker’s mind; in this use it may be translated by for example, to take only, e.g.

лю´ди лeни´вы. Bзять хоть тeбя´.

People are lazy. Take you for

example.

что

(a)

may introduce a question, perhaps with a tone of surprise, disapproval or indignation, e.g.

что, боли´т жeлу´док?

So you’ve got stomach-ache, have

you?

что, он говори´т, что нe знaéт

What! He says he doesn’t know me?

мeня´?

(b)

combines with a personal pronoun in the nominative to form elliptical exclamations in which some verb such as говори´ть is understood,

e.g.

– Mо´жeт быть, ску´шaeшь eщё

‘Would you like to have something

что´-нибудь?

else to eat?’

– что ты! я сыт(a´).

‘What are you saying? I’m full.’

– Я тeбe´ зaплaчу´ зa пи´во.

‘I’ll pay you for the beer.’

– что ты! He нa´до!

‘For goodness sake! It’s not necessary.’

187

Vocabulary and idiom

Miscellaneous

-то

particles

-нибу´дь

form indefinite pronouns (see 11.2.5)

-ли´бо

дe´скaть

indicates reported speech, e.g. Oн, дe´скaть, нe

слы´шaл, He said he hadn’t heard.

мол

contraction of мо´лвил; = дe´скaть

-с (obs)

(= су´дaрь оr судa´рыня) form of address to a

social superior, e.g. serf to lord; also used

ironically; widely encountered in classical

literature

-ся (-сь)

forms reflexive verbs (11.8)

я´кобы

allegedly, ostensibly, supposedly, e.g. я´кобы

нeвозмо´жнaя зaдa´чa, a supposedly impossible task

(but the speaker does not believe it to be so)

5.5

Interjections

Interjections by their nature belong to the colloquial speech of R1.

The following list gives some common interjections with translations that attempt to capture their flavour rather than the literal meaning of the words.

admiration

ax!

wow!

бaлдёж! (slang)

great!

блeск!

brill!

блeстя´щe!

brilliant!

зaмeчa´тeльно!

wonderful!

здо´рово!

great!

изуми´тeльно!

super!

отпa´д!

great!

су´пeр!

super!

улёт!

magic!

чудe´сно!

marvellous!

agreement

договори´лись

OK, agreed

зaмётaно

OK, agreed

eсть (mil)

yes, sir/ay, ay, sir

идёт

all right

лa´дно

OK, fine

хорошо´

good

annoyance

к чёрту eго´!

to hell with him/it!

188

5.5

Interjections

пошёл к чёрту!/пошёл нa´

go to hell!

фиг!

пошёл нa´ хeр! (vulg)

go to hell!

блин! (D)

bother/damn/sod it!

Hу, блин, ты дaёшь!

What the hell are you doing?

(slightly vulg)

тьфу, нaдоe´л/a/о/и

oh damn, I’m fed up with it/you

нaплeвa´ть нa + acc

to hell with, damn

провa´ливaй!

clear off, get lost!

убирa´йся!

clear off, get lost!

чёртa с двa!

like hell!

чёрт возьми´!/чёрт побeри´!

to hell with it!

хрeн с + instr (vulg)

to hell with

Note: see also 5.6 on vulgar language.

disbelief, surprise

ax!

oh!

Бо´жe мой!

my God!

го´споди!

good heavens, good gracious!

вот eщё!

whatever next!

во´т кaк!/во´т что!

really?

вот тaк тa´к! (R2)

well, I never!

ё моё (R1)

well, I never!

ни фигa´ сeбe´! (D)

well, I never!

ну и ну!

well, well!

fright, pain

aй!

oh! ouch

aх!

ah! oh!

ой!

ouch!

ox!

ah! oh!

ни в ко

objection

éм слу´чae!

nо way!

ни зa что нa свe´тe!

not for anything!

ничeго´ подо´бного!

nothing of the sort!

внимa´ниe!

warning

attention!

осторо´жно!

careful!

смотри´(тe)!

look out!

miscellaneous

Бог (eго´) знaéт!

God knows!

брысь!

shoo! (to cat)

будь здоро´в/здоро´вa/

God bless! (when sb sneezes)

бу´дьтe здоро´вы!

189

Vocabulary and idiom

вот-во´т!

that’s it! (expressing approval)

вот тaк!

= вот-вот

во´т тeбe´!

take that! (accompanying blow)

вот тeбe´ и + nom

so much for

во´т тeбe нa´!

well, how do you like that!

дaвa´й

come on (encouragement)

дaвa´й дaвa´й

go on/pull the other leg (when sb is told

sth implausible)

eщё бы!

I’ll say! (expressing confirmation)

лёгок/лeгкa´ нa поми´нe

talk of the devil (on appearance of sb

one has been talking about)

нa

here you are/here, take it, e.g. Ha´ кни´гу,

Here, take the book.

тaк тeбe´/вaм и нa´до

it serves you right

подeло´м тeбe´/вaм!

it serves you right

(R3, obs)

рa´ди Бо´гa

for God’s sake

тсс!

shh! hush!

фу!

ugh! (expressing revulsion)

чeго´ до´брого!

who knows! (anticipating sth

unpleasant)

что´б нe сглa´зить!

touch wood!

interjectional

Some interjectional forms, most of them derived from verbs, may

predicate

serve as a predicate in R1, e.g.

Aйдa´ в го´род.

They set off and were in town in no time.

Я бaх/бaц/хлоп eго´ по

I banged/slapped him on the back.

спинe´.

Oн – прыг нa кры´шу.

He leapt on to the roof.

Oн – стук в стeкло´.

He knocked on the window.

Oни´ – шмыг в тeнь.

They nipped into the shadow.

5.6

Vulgar language

This section must be prefaced by a triple warning. Firstly, the foreign student should be aware that no matter how good one’s command of

another people’s language one may strike a discordant note or even

give offence to a native speaker if one falls into very familiar registers in general and the vulgar register in particular. Secondly, it cannot be overemphasised that a vulgar word may have a greater impact in the

Russian context than does its English lexical equivalent (even though 190

5.6

Vulgar language

the same anatomical features and sentiments are involved), since the English word occurs in a society that uses such vocabulary, for better or for worse, with relative freedom. Thirdly, it should be understood that whereas in Britain vulgar language may nowadays be used as freely by women as by men, in Russia the use of such language by a woman is

likely to shock both men and women more than the use of that

language by a man. The foreign student of Russian should therefore

avoid using vulgar language if he, or especially she, wishes to win

acceptance in any sort of ‘polite’ Russian society.

On the other hand, with the sudden influx into Russia of things

Western, including pornography, vulgar language is a reality of Russian life that foreign students are much more likely to encounter now than they would have been in Soviet times. It has also found its way on a large scale into serious literature, including works published in Russia as well as those published abroad by e´migreś. The introduction of

vulgar language into works of art may be traced to the brief thaw under Khrushcho´v. Vulgar words occur, for example, in Solzhen´ıtsyn’s Oдu´н

дeнь Ивa´нa Дeнu´совичa ( A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich). In the age of glásnost and the post-Soviet era such language has come to be widely used with great freedom in the works of writers such as Aleshk óvskii, Vened´ıkt Eroféev, Lim ónov, Nárbikova, Petrushévskaia, Evgénii Pop óv and Z´ınik, some of whom, it should be noted, are women, and many

of whom are writers of literary note. The foreign student may

therefore usefully acquire a passive knowledge of this area of language.

The word meaning foul language, мaт, is derived from мaть, mother, expressions of abuse towards one’s mother being the most offensive sort of obscenity. Further expressions of the same origin include мa´тeрный

язы´к and мaтeрщи´нa (which also mean foul language) and the verbs мaтeри´ться, to use foul language, and мaтюкa´ться, to eff and blind.

A small selection of the very numerous obscenities available to the

Russian-speaker is given below.

блeвa´ть (блюю´, блюёшь)

to puke

eбa´ть (eбу´, eбёшь; past tense

to fuck; also to curse, discipline

ёб, eбли´)

severely

отъeби´сь от мeня´

fuck off

e´бля

fucking (noun)

взъёбкa

a bollocking

ёбaный

fucking (adj)

eбa´ться с чeм-н

to fuck about with sth

зaёбa (m and f )

pain-in-the-arse

ёб твою´ мaть

fucking (as epithet; lit fuck your

mother)

трa´хaть/трa´хнуть (less vulg

to screw, bonk

than eбa´ть)

191

Vocabulary and idiom

пи´сaть (пи´сaю,

to piss

пи´сaeшь)/попи´сaть

ссaть (ссу, ссышь)/поссa´ть

to piss

отливa´ть/отли´ть

to have a piss, take a leak

жо´пa (dimin жо´пкa)

arse

жополи´з

arse-licker

бздeть (бзжу, бздишь)

to fart (silently), foul the air,

bullshit; to shit oneself, i.e. to be

afraid

бздун

fart (weak person), coward

пeрдe´ть (пeрди´т)/пёрнуть

to fart

пeрдёж

farting

пeрду´н

farter, old fart

срaть (сру, срёшь)/нaсрa´ть

to shit

eму´ нaсрa´ть

he doesn’t give a shit

зaсрa´нeц

arse-hole, shit (i.e. person)

обсирa´ть/обосрa´ть кого´-н

to shit all over sb (fig)

дeрьмо´

crap, dung (also person)

говно´

shit

говню´к

shit (bag) (i.e. person)

пиздa´

cunt

пи´здить/спи´здить

to swipe, nick, steal

хуй (dimin хуёк)

prick (also person)

ни хуя´

fuck all

пошёл нa´ хуй

fuck off

хeр

= хуй

ни хeрa´

= ни хуя´

хуйня´

shit (nonsense, rubbish)

хeрня´

= хуйня´

хуёвый

lousy, fucking awful

хeро´вый

= хуёвый

мудa´к

arsehole (person)

мудня´

bollocks (nonsense)

дрочи´лa (m and f )

wanker

дрочи´ть

to masturbate

сво´лочь (f )

swine, bastard

блядь (f )

whore; also used as exclamation:

sod it!

ку´рвa

tart

192

5.7

Idioms

5.7

Idioms

An idiom is an expression peculiar to a particular language. It may have a rough equivalent in another language, but its meaning may not be

readily apparent to a foreigner or even logically explicable.

Russian is particularly rich in its stock of idiomatic expressions,

which are a source of pride to native speakers. These expressions lend colour and vitality to a speaker’s language and appropriate use of them enhances the speaker’s authority.

The idioms given in this section are widely used in modern

Russian. While many of them are colloquial, they may well be

deployed in the literary language and in R3c as well as in everyday

speech in order to impart vitality, vividness and even an air of authentic national distinctiveness. On the other hand they are unlikely to be

encountered in the formal objective registers of R3a and R3b.

The idioms are arranged in alphabetical order according to the letter with which the key word, usually a noun, begins. Where only one

member of an aspectual pair of verbs appears either that member

predominates or only that member may be used in the idiom in

question. Wherever possible an idiomatic English equivalent of the

Russian idiom is given. In many cases a literal translation of the

Russian idiom is provided as well. Often this literal translation helps to elucidate the meaning of the Russian idiom but in some instances it

serves merely to draw attention to the colourful nature of the idiom. In yet other cases, where there is no English equivalent of the Russian idiom, we provide a literal translation and if necessary an explanation of the context in which the idiom may be used.

Note that a few of the words that appear in these idioms (e.g.

зaдо´ринкa, згa, кули´чки, нeсо´лоно, по´лымя) have no other use in

the modern language or occur only in a small number of such set

expressions.

Haчa´ть с aзо´в

to begin at the beginning (aз is the Slavonic name

of the first letter of the Cyrillic alphabet)

открывa´ть/откры´ть Aмe´рику

lit to discover America, i.e. to say sth well-known

бить бaклу´ши

to fritter away one’s time

Oи бро´вью нe повёл.

lit He didn’t move his brow, i.e. He didn’t turn a

hair.

бросa´ться/бро´ситься в глaзa´

lit to hurl itself in one’s eyes, i.e. to be striking

кaк ни в чём нe бывa´ло

as if nothing had happened

(У нeго´) всё вa´лится и´з рук.

lit Everything comes tumbling out of (his) hands, i.e.

(He) is all fingers and thumbs.

193

Vocabulary and idiom

знaть что´-н вдоль и попeрёк

lit to know sth along and across, i.e. inside out

Eщё ви´лaми по водe´ пи´сaно.

lit It’s still written on the water with a pitchfork, i.e.

It’s not written in stone/It’s still up in the air.

и концы´ в во´ду.

lit And the ends/traces into the water, i.e. None will

be the wiser.

кaк в во´ду кa´нуть

lit like sinking into the water, i.e. to vanish into thin air

выводи´ть/вы´вeсти нa чи´стую во´ду

lit to bring out into clear water, i.e. to expose, show

in true colours

Bодо´й нe рaзольёшь.

(They’re) thick as thieves.

стрe´ляный воробe´й

lit a sparrow that’s been under fire, i.e. an old hand

дeржa´ть у´хо востро´

to be on one’s guard/keep a sharp look-out

искa´ть вчeрa´шнeго дня

lit to look for yesterday, i.e. to waste time on sth

futile, to go on a wild-goose chase

говори´ть с глa´зу нa´ глaз

to talk tête-à-tête

глa´зом нe моргну´в

lit without blinking, i.e. without batting an eyelid

зaкрывa´ть/зaкры´ть глaзa´ нa что´-н

to turn a blind eye to sth

ломa´ть го´лову нaд чe´м-н

lit to break one’s head over sth, i.e. to rack one’s

brains

идти´/пойти´ в го´ру

to go up in the world

нaступa´ть/нaступи´ть нa грa´бли

lit to step on a rake (so that the handle comes up

and hits you), i.e. to make a mistake which has

painful consequences; нaступи´ть нa тe жe грa´бли,

to make the same mistake again

с грeхо´м пополa´м

only just, with difficulty

ло´жкa дёгтя в бо´чкe мёдa

lit a spoon of tar in a barrel of honey, i.e. a fly in the ointment

нe ро´бкого дeся´ткa

nо coward

пeть дифирa´мбы кому´-н

to sing sb’s praises

У нeго´ душa´ нaрaспa´шку.

lit He has an unbuttoned soul, i.e. He wears his

heart upon his sleeve.

дeржa´ть в eжо´вых рукaви´цaх

to rule with a rod of iron

моло´ть eрунду´

to talk nonsense

зaблуди´ться в трёх со´снaх

lit to get lost in three pine-trees, i.e. in broad daylight e´хaть зa´йцeм

to travel without paying the fare

194

5.7

Idioms

Hи зги нe ви´дно.

lit The path can’t be seen, i.e. It’s pitch dark.

положи´ть зу´бы нa по´лку

lit to put one’s teeth on the shelf, i.e. to tighten one’s belt

дeржa´ть язы´к зa зубa´ми

to hold one’s tongue

кричa´ть во всю ивa´новскую

to shout at the top of one’s voice (the expression

refers to Ivanovskaia Square in the Moscow

Kremlin; the square is so big that it is hard to

shout right across it)

тёртый кaлa´ч

old stager, person who has been around

дeржa´ть кa´мeнь зa пa´зухой нa кого´-н

lit to keep a stone in one’s bosom, i.e. to bear a

grudge against sb

кa´мeнь прeткновe´ния

a stumbling block

(Oн) зa сло´вом в кaрмa´н нe лe´зeт.

(He’s) not at a loss for a word.

зaвaри´ть кa´шу

to stir up trouble

рaсхлeбa´ть кa´шу

to put things right

входи´ть/войти´ в колeю´

lit to go into (its) rut, i.e. to settle down again

(of life, situation; not a negative expression,

unlike Eng to get into a rut)

выбивa´ть/вы´бить из колeи´

lit to knock out of (its) rut, i.e. to unsettle

Комa´р но´сa нe подто´чит.

Not a thing can be said against it.

своди´ть/свeсти´ концы´ с концa´ми

to make ends meet

остa´ться у рaзби´того коры´тa

lit to be left at a broken trough, i.e. to be back where one started

(У нeго´) лёгкaя рукa´.

(He has) good luck.

Кто в лeс, кто по дровa´.

(They’re) at sixes and sevens.

сeсть в лу´жу

lit to sit in a puddle, i.e. to get into a mess

(Я/он/онa´) нe лы´ком шит(a).

I/he/she wasn’t born yesterday.

идти´ кaк по мa´слу

to go swimmingly

мeдвe´жья услу´гa

lit a bear’s service, said of action that is

intended to be helpful but in fact has the

opposite effect

мe´жду мо´лотом и нaковa´льнeй

lit between the hammer and the anvil, i.e. between

the devil and the deep blue sea/between a rock and a

hard place

моло´чныe рe´ки, кисe´льныe бeрeгa´

a land of milk and honey

195

Vocabulary and idiom

Mурa´шки по спинe´ бe´гaют.

lit Little insects are running up (my) back, i.e. It

gives (me) the creeps.

Oн му´хи нe оби´дит.

He wouldn’t harm a fly.

дe´лaть из му´хи слонa´

lit to make an elephant out of a fly, i.e. to make a

mountain out of a mole-hill

уйти´ нeсо´лоно хлeбa´вши

to go away empty-handed

проходи´ть крa´сной ни´тью чe´рeз что´-н

lit to run like a red thread through sth, i.e. to stand

(R3, bookish)

out (of theme, motif )

жить нa бa´рскую но´гу

to live like a lord

жить нa широ´кую но´гу

to live in grand style

встaть с лe´вой ноги´

lit to get up on the left foot, i.e. to get out of bed on the wrong side

быть нa коро´ткой ногe´ с кe´м-н

to be on close terms with sb

ног под собо´й нe чу´вствовaть

lit not to feel one’s legs under oneself, i.e. to be

dropping (from tiredness)

вe´шaть/повe´сить нос

to be crestfallen

зaдирa´ть/зaдрa´ть нос

to put on airs

води´ть кого´-н зa´ нос

to lead sb a dance

клeвa´ть но´сом

to nod off

остa´вить кого´-н с но´сом

to dupe sb

остa´ться с но´сом

to be duped

говори´ть бeз обиняко´в

to speak plainly/without beating about the bush

пройти´ ого´нь, во´ду и мe´дныe тру´бы

to go through fire and water (and in the Russian

copper tubes as well!)

из огня´ дa в по´лымя

lit from the fire into the flames, i.e. out of the

frying-pan and into the fire

мe´ж(ду) двух огнe´й

lit between two fires, i.e. between the devil and the

deep blue sea

пa´лeц о пa´лeц нe удa´рить

not to raise a finger

кому´-н пa´льцa в рот нe клaди´

lit don’t put your finger in sb’s mouth, i.e. a person

is not to be trusted

попa´сть пa´льцeм в нe´бо

to be wide of the mark

смотрe´ть сквозь пa´льцы нa что´-н

lit to look at sth through one’s fingers, i.e. to shut

one’s eyes to sth

встaвля´ть/встa´вить пa´лки кому´-н в

to put a spoke in sb’s wheel

колёсa

пeрeливa´ть из пусто´го в поро´жнee

to beat the air

196

5.7

Idioms

Горa´ с плeч свaли´лaсь.

lit A mountain’s come off (my) shoulders, i.e. (It’s) a

weight off (my) mind.

ждaть у мо´ря пого´ды

to wait for sth to turn up

знaть всю подного´тную

to know the whole truth

попaдa´ть/попa´сть в то´чку

to hit the nail on the head

стeрe´ть кого´-н в порошо´к

lit to grind sb into powder, i.e. to make mincemeat

of sb

всё кро´мe пти´чьeго молокa´

lit everything except bird’s milk, said when every

possible dish is served at a meal

рaзби´ть в пух и прaх

lit to defeat/break up into fluff and dust, i.e. to put to rout

стрeля´ть из пу´шeк по воробья´м

lit to fire cannons at sparrows, i.e. to use a

sledgehammer to crack a nut

( У нeго´) сeмь пя´тниц нa нeдe´лe.

(He) keeps chopping and changing.

покaзa´ть кому´-н гдe рa´ки зиму´ют

lit to show sb where the crayfish spend the winter = to

give sb a dressing-down

y кого´-н хлопо´т по´лон рот

lit sb has a mouth full of troubles, i.e. sb has his/her hands full

мaхну´ть руко´й нa что´-н

to give up sth as lost

сидe´ть сложa´ ру´ки

lit to sit with arms folded, i.e. to twiddle one’s

thumbs

из рук вон пло´хо

dreadfully, wretchedly

рaбо´тaть зaсучи´в рукaвa´

lit to work having rolled up one’s sleeves, i.e. to work with zeal

рaбо´тaть спустя´ рукaвa´

lit to work having put one’s sleeves down, i.e. to work

in a slipshod manner

ни ры´бa ни мя´со

neither fish nor flesh, neither one thing nor the other

двa сaпогa´ пa´рa. (pej)

They make a pair.

подложи´ть кому´-н свинью´

to play a dirty trick on sb

ни слу´ху ни ду´ху (о ко´м-н)

not a word has been heard (of sb)

Bот гдe собa´кa зaры´тa.

lit That’s where the dog is buried = That’s the crux

of the matter.

собa´ку съeсть нa чём-н

to know sth inside out

выноси´ть/вы´нeсти сор из избы´

lit to take one’s litter out of the peasant hut, i.e. to wash one’s dirty linen in public

роди´ться в соро´чкe

lit to be born in a shirt/blouse, i.e. with a silver

spoon in one’s mouth

дeржa´ть что´-н под спу´дом

to hide sth under a bushel

197

Vocabulary and idiom

выходи´ть/вы´йти сухи´м из воды´

lit to emerge dry from water, i.e. unscathed

бeз сучкa´, бeз зaдо´ринки

without a hitch

в двa счётa

in a jiffy

быть нe в своe´й тaрe´лкe

to be not quite oneself

B тeснотe´, дa нe в оби´дe.

The more the merrier.

сбивa´ть/сбить кого´-н с то´лку

to confuse sb

зa три´дeвять зeмe´ль

lit beyond thrice nine lands, i.e. far, far away

(a formula from fairy tales)

в Tу´лу со свои´м сaмовa´ром

lit to Tula with one’s samovar, i.e. coals to Newcastle

(in tsarist times Tula was where samovars were

made)

зaходи´ть/зaйти´ в тупи´к

to go up a blind alley, to come to a dead end, reach

deadlock

зaки´дывaть/зaки´нуть у´дочку

lit to cast a (fishing-)line, i.e. to put out feelers

попaдa´ться/попa´сться нa у´дочку

to swallow the bait

брa´ться/взя´ться зa ум

to come to one’s senses

мотa´ть/нaмотa´ть что´-н сeбe´ нa ус

lit to wind sth round one’s whisker, i.e. to take good

note of sth

из уст в устa´

lit from mouth to mouth, i.e. by word of mouth

пропускa´ть/пропусти´ть что´-н ми´мо ушe´й

to turn a deaf ear to sth

кури´ть фимиa´м кому´-н

lit to burn incense for sb, i.e. to praise sb to the skies ч

зaмори´ть чeрвячкa´

lit to underfeed the little worm, i.e. to have a snack

y чёртa нa кули´чкaх

in the middle of nowhere, the back of beyond

дe´ло в шля´пe.

lit The matter is in the hat, i.e. It’s in the bag.

по щу´чьeму вeлe´нию

lit at the pike’s behest, i.e. as if by magic

я´блоко рaздо´рa

apple of discord, bone of contention

Я´блоку нe´гдe упa´сть.

lit There’s nowhere for an apple to fall, i.e. There

isn’t room to swing a cat.

отклa´дывaть/отложи´ть что´-н в до´лгий

lit to put sth in the long-term box, i.e. to shelve sth, я´щик

put sth off

198

5.8

Proverbs and sayings

5.8

Proverbs and sayings (посло´вицы и погово´рки)

A proverb is a short statement expressing a supposed truth or moral

lesson. Russian is rich in such colourful utterances, many of which are felt to express folk wisdom. A foreigner’s knowledge of the more

common among them is likely to impress a native speaker, provided

that they are used correctly and sparingly.

The following list contains many of the best-known Russian

proverbs. Those proverbs that are distinctively Russian and proverbs that differ in their terms from their English equivalents have been

given preference in the selection. Where possible a close English

equivalent is given, often with a literal translation. Where there is no close English equivalent a literal translation is offered together, if possible, with an approximate English equivalent. In a few cases (e.g.

Heзвa´ный гость ху´жe тaтa´ринa) the literal meaning makes the sense of the saying obvious.

Note:

occasionally stress in a word used in a proverb is on a different syllable from the syllable on which it normally falls, perhaps because of the need for an internal rhyme (see e.g. the stress on воротa´ (instead of standard воро´тa) in the first proverb in this list).

Пришлa´ бeдa´ – отворя´й воротa´.

lit Misfortune has come, open the gate(s), i.e. It never rains but it pours.

друзья´ познaю´тся в бeдe´.

A friend in need is a friend indeed.

Ceмь бeд – оди´н отвe´т.

One may as well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb.

Бe´дность нe поро´к.

Poverty is no sin.

Пe´рвый блин ко´мом.

lit The first pancake is like a lump, i.e. The first

attempt is usually botched.

Beк живи´ – вeк учи´сь

Live and learn!

C волкa´ми жить – по-во´лчьи выть.

lit If one is to live with wolves one has to howl like a

wolf, i.e. When in Rome do as the Romans do.

Cтa´рого воробья´ нa мяки´нe нe

An old bird [ sparrow in Russian] is not caught with провeдёшь.

chaff.

Пу´гaнaя воро´нa кустa´ бои´тся.

lit A frightened crow is afraid of a bush, i.e. Once bitten twice shy.

Heзвa´ный гость ху´жe тaтa´ринa.

An uninvited guest is worse than a Tatar. (The Tatars

were the sovereign power in Russia from the early

thirteenth century to the late fifteenth century.)

B гостя´х хорошо´, a до´мa лу´чшe.

lit It’s nice as a guest but it’s better at home, i.e. There’s no place like home.

199

Vocabulary and idiom

дурaкa´м зaко´н нe пи´сaн.

Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.

Куй жeлe´зо покa´ горячо´.

Strike while the iron is hot.

жизнь прожи´ть – нe по´лe пeрeйти´.

lit Living through one’s life is not like going

through a field, i.e. Life is not a bed of roses.

ззa двумя´ зa´йцaми пого´нишься, ни одного´ lit If you run after two hares you will catch neither.

нe поймaéшь.

He плюй в коло´дeц; случи´тся воды´

lit Don’t spit in the well, you may need to drink

нaпи´ться.

out of it, i.e. Do not antagonise people whose help

you may need later.

Коси´ косa´ покa´ росa´.

Make hay while the sun shines.

He всё коту´ мa´слeницa, придёт и

lit It’s not all Shrove-tide for the cat, Lent will come

вeли´кий пост.

too, i.e. After the dinner comes the reckoning.

Bсяк кули´к своё боло´то хвa´лит.

lit Every sandpiper praises its own bog,

i.e. people praise what is dear to them.

Oднa´ лa´сточкa вeсны´ нe дe´лaeт.

One swallow does not make a summer

[ spring in Russian].

лeс ру´бят – щe´пки лeтя´т.

lit You cut down the forest and the bits of wood fly,

i.e. You cannot make an omelette without breaking

eggs.

Mир тe´сeн.

It’s a small world.

B чужо´й монaсты´рь со свои´м устa´вом нe

lit You don’t go into sb else’s monastery with your

хо´дят.

own set of rules, i.e. When in Rome do as the

Romans do.

Mосквa´ нe срa´зу стро´илaсь

lit Moscow wasn’t built all at once, i.e. Rome was

not built in a day.

У сeми´ ня´нeк дитя´ бeз глa´зу.

lit Where there are seven nannies the child is not

watched, i.e. Too many cooks spoil the broth.

Bсё пeрeмe´лeтся, мукa´ бу´дeт.

It will all come right in the end.

Поживём – уви´дим.

lit We shall live and we shall see, i.e. Time will

tell.

что посeéшь, то и пожнёшь.

As a man sows so shall he reap.

200

5.8

Proverbs and sayings

Прa´вдa глaзa´ ко´лeт.

lit Truth pricks the eyes, i.e. Home truths are hard to

swallow.

Cвоя´ рубa´шкa бли´жe к тe´лу.

lit One’s own shirt is nearer to the body,

i.e. Charity begins at home.

Pу´сский чeловe´к зa´дним умо´м крe´пок.

The Russian is wise after the event.

Pыбa´к рыбaкa´ ви´дит издaлeкa´.

lit The fisherman spots a fisherman from afar,

i.e. Birds of a feather flock together.

Cдe´лaнного нe воро´тишь.

What’s done can’t be undone.

Cмe´лость городa´ бeрёт.

lit Boldness takes cities, i.e. Nothing ventured nothing gained.

Cоловья´ бa´снями нe ко´рмят.

lit You can’t feed a nightingale with fables,

i.e. Fine words butter no parsnips.

Cы´тый голо´дного нe рaзумeéт.

lit The well-fed cannot understand the hungry.

Taм хорошо´, гдe нaс нeт.

lit It’s good where we are not, i.e. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.

Tи´шe e´дeшь, дa´льшe бу´дeшь.

lit [If] you go more calmly you’ll get further,

i.e. More haste less speed.

Ум хорошо´, a двa лу´чшe.

Two heads are better than one.

Xрeн рe´дьки нe слa´щe.

lit Horseradish is no sweeter than ordinary radish,

i.e. There is little to choose between two unpleasant

things.

Heт худa´ бeз добрa´

lit There’s no evil without good, i.e. Every cloud has a silver lining.

цыпля´т по о´сeни считa´ют.

lit People count their chickens after autumn,

i.e. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.

He тaк стрa´шeн чёрт, кaк eго´

The devil is not so terrible as he is painted.

мaлю´ют.

B ти´хом о´мутe чe´рти во´дятся.

lit In a quiet whirlpool devils are found, i.e. Still waters run deep.

Язы´к до Киéвa довeдёт.

lit Your tongue will get you to Kiev, i.e. Don’t hesitate to ask people.

201

Vocabulary and idiom

5.9

Similes

A simile is an explicit likening of one thing to another. Languages have a stock of such comparisons, some of which are distinctive to that

language. While the foreign student should take care not to use similes excessively or ostentatiously, their occasional use in the right context adds colour and authenticity to one’s language, both spoken and

written. The following list gives some of the commonest Russian

similes. It is arranged in alphabetical order of the key word in the comparison.

(кружи´ться) кaк бe´лкa в колeсe´

(to whirl around) like a squirrel in a wheel (said of sb

frantically busy)

дождь льёт кaк из вeдрa´.

lit It’s raining as out of a bucket, i.e. It’s raining cats and dogs.

кaк с гу´ся водa´

lit like water off a goose, i.e. like water off a duck’s back кaк в во´ду опу´щeнный

downcast, crestfallen

кaк горо´х об стe´ну

like a pea against a wall (said of action that is futile)

кaк гром срeди´ я´сного нe´бa

lit like thunder in the middle of a clear sky, i.e. like a bolt from the blue

(быть, сидe´ть) кaк нa иго´лкaх

(to be) on thorns/tenterhooks

кaк двe кa´пли воды´ похо´жи

lit like two drops of water, i.e. alike as two peas

(жить) кaк ко´шкa с собa´кой

(to live) a cat and dog life

холо´дный кaк лёд

cold as ice

знaть что´-н кaк свои´ пять пa´льцeв

lit to know sth like one’s five fingers, i.e. like the back of one’s hand

кaк ры´бa в водe´

like a fish in water, like a duck to water, in one’s element

(би´ться) кaк ры´бa об лёд

(to fight) like a fish against ice (said about futile

struggle)

кaк снeг нa´ голову

lit like snow on one’s head, i.e. like a bolt from the blue кaк собa´кa нa сe´нe

like a dog in the manger

гол кaк соко´л

lit naked like a falcon, i.e. poor as a church mouse

кaк нa рaскaлённых у´глях

as on hot coals

кaк чёрт от лa´дaнa

like the devil from incense (said of sb shunning sth)

Note

1. The word глa´сность (f ) is itself an example of the much smaller number of Russian words that have been borrowed by English and other Western European languages; во´дкa, интeллигe´нция, пeрeстро´йкa, спу´тник, тaйгa´, are others.

202

6 Language and everyday life

6.1

Measurement

The metric system has been used in Russia since it was introduced on an obligatory basis by the Bolshevik government in 1918. The British imperial system will not be understood by Russians, although some of the words denoting units of measure in that system may be familiar to them. Comparisons of units of different systems in the following

sections are approximate.

6.1.1

Length, distance, height

Approximate metric equivalents of imperial units of measure of length: 1 inch = 25 millimetres

1 foot = 0.3 metres

1 yard = 0.9 metres

1 mile = 1.6 kilometres

The Russian words for the imperial units are дюйм, фут, ярд, ми´ля, respectively.

The Russian words for the basic metric units of measure of length are: миллимe´тр

millimetre

сaнтимe´тр

centimetre

мeтр

metre

киломe´тр

kilometre

Some rough equivalents:

10 сaнтимe´тров

4 inches

1 мeтр

just over a yard

100 мe´тров

110 yards

1 киломe´тр

five-eighths of a mile

100 киломe´тров

62 miles

мужчи´нa ро´стом (в) мeтр

a man 6 tall

во´сeмьдeсят три (1,83)

мужчи´нa ро´стом (в) мeтр

a man 5 9 tall

сe´мьдeсят пять (1,75)

мужчи´нa ро´стом (в) мeтр

a man 5 6 tall

шeстьдeся´т во´сeмь (1,68)

дe´вочкa ро´стом (в) дeвяно´сто

a girl nearly 3 tall

сaнтимe´тров (0,90)

203

Language and everyday life

Note:

the versions of the above phrases without the preposition в are more colloquial.

A plane might fly at an altitude of 30,000 feet, i.e. нa высотe´ дe´сять

[R3: дeсяти´] ты´сяч мe´тров.

The highest mountain in the world, Everest (Эвeрe´ст or

джомолу´нгмa), has a height of roughly 29,000 feet, i.e. во´сeмь ты´сяч

восeмьсо´т пятьдeся´т мe´тров.

6.1.2

Area

Approximate metric equivalents of imperial units of measure of area: 1 square inch = 6.45 square centimetres

1 square foot = 0.09 square metres

1 square yard = 0.84 square metres

1 acre = 0.4 hectares

1 square mile = 259 hectares

The Russian adjective for square is квaдрa´тный. The metric unit of measure for large areas is the hectare, гeктa´р (= 10,000 square metres).

Some rough equivalents with imperial measurements:

оди´н квaдрa´тный мeтр

just over 1 square yard

10 квaдрa´тных мe´тров

just under 12 square yards

двa гeктa´рa

nearly 5 acres (about the size

of 3 football pitches)

250 гeктa´ров

about 615 acres (roughly the

area of Hyde Park)

20,000 квaдрa´тных киломe´тров

nearly 8,000 square miles

(roughly the area of Wales)

6.1.3

Weight

Approximate metric equivalents of avoirdupois units of measure of

weight:

1 ounce = 28.35 grams

1 pound = 0.45 kilograms

1 stone = 6.36 kilograms

1 hundredweight = 50.8 kilograms

1 ton = 1,016 kilograms

The Russian words for these avoirdupois units are у´нция, фунт, сто´ун, хa´ндрeдвeйт, то´ннa, respectively.

The Russian words for the basic metric units of weight are:

миллигрa´м

milligram

грaмм

gram

килогрa´мм

kilogram

204

6.1

Measurement

цe´нтнeр

100 kilograms

то´ннa

(metric) tonne (1,000 kg)

Some rough equivalents with avoirdupois weights:

200 грaмм мa´слa

about 7 oz of butter

полкило´ мя´сa

just over 1 lb of meat

мужчи´нa вe´сом (в) 65 кило´

a man of just over 10 stone

мужчи´нa вe´сом (в) 100 кило´/

a man of about 151/2 stone

оди´н цe´нтнeр

мaши´нa вe´сом (в) 1000 кило´/

a car weighing just under a ton

одну´ то´нну

Note:

the versions of the above phrases without the preposition в are more colloquial.

6.1.4

Volume

Approximate metric equivalents of imperial units of measure of

volume:

1 cubic inch = 16 cubic centimetres

1 cubic foot = 0.03 cubic metres

1 cubic yard = 0.8 cubic metres

1 pint = 0.57 litres

1 gallon = 4.55 litres

The Russian words for the last two imperial units are пи´нтa and гaлло´н, respectively. The Russian adjective for cubic is куби´чeский; litre is литр. Some rough equivalents:

полли´трa пи´вa

about a pint of beer

литр молокa´

about 13 / 4 pints of milk

бeнзобa´к ёмкостью в 50

a petrol tank which holds about

ли´тров

11 gallons

Note:

small quantities of drinks may be ordered by weight, e.g. сто грaмм во´дки, 100 grams of vodka; двe´сти грaмм коньякa´, 200 grams of brandy.

6.1.5

Russian pre-revolutionary units of measure

Words relating to the earlier system of measurement will of course be found in pre-revolutionary literature and documents, and in some cases may persist in contexts in which they no longer have to do with

precise measurement. The main units were:

вeршо

length

´к = 13 /

or 4.4 cm

aрши´н = 28 or 71 cm

сa´жe´нь (f ) = 7 or 2.13 metres

вeрстa´ = 2 / 3 mile or 1.07 km

205

Language and everyday life

Note:

мe´рить что´-н нa свой aрши´н, to measure sth by one’s own standards мe´рить вёрсты, to travel a long way

хвaтa´ть вeршки´ чeго´-н, to get a smattering of sth

area

дeсяти´нa = 2.7 acres or 1.09 hectares

weight

пуд = 36 lbs or 16.38 kg

liquid measure

штоф = 2 pints or 1.23 litres

чe´твeрть (f ) = 5 pints or 3 litres

вeдро´ = 21 pints or 12.3 litres (10 × штоф, 4 × чe´твeрть)

6.1.6

Speed

Some rough equivalents:

60 киломe´тров в чaс

37 miles an hour

100 киломe´тров в чaс

62 miles an hour

160 киломe´тров в чaс

100 miles an hour

300 миллио´нов мe´тров

186,000 feet per second (the speed

в сeку´нду

of light)

6.1.7

Temperature

The centigrade scale constructed by Celsius is used, and the Fahrenheit scale will not be generally understood. The formulae for conversion

are:

C = (F − 32) × 5 , e.g. 77◦F = 25◦C

F = C × 9 + 32 , e.g. 15◦C = 59◦F

Some equivalents:

По цe´льсию

по Φaрeнгe´йту

сто грa´дусов (100◦, то´чкa кипe´ния воды´, i.e.

212◦

boiling point of water)

три´дцaть грa´дусов (тeплa´) (30◦ above zero)

86◦

двa´дцaть грa´дусов (тeплa´) (20◦ above zero)

68◦

дe´сять грa´дусов (тeплa´) (10◦ above zero)

50◦

чeты´рe гpa´дусa (тeплa´) (4◦ above zero)

39◦

нуль (m; 0◦, то´чкa зaмeрзa´ния воды´,

32◦

i.e. freezing point of water)

пять грa´дусов ни´жe нуля´/пять грa´дусов

23◦

моро´зa (−5◦)

двa´дцaть грa´дусов ни´жe нуля´/двa´дцaть

−4◦

грa´дусов моро´зa (−20◦)

со´рок грa´дусов ни´жe нуля´/со´рок грa´дусов

−40◦

моро´зa (−40◦)

206

6.4

Time

The normal temperature of the human body (98.4◦F) is just under

37◦C, i.e. три´дцaть сeмь грa´дусов, more precisely три´дцaть шeсть

и дe´вять.

6.2

Currency

The basic unit of currency is the rouble (рубль; m). The smaller unit, the kopeck (копe´йкa), of which there are a hundred to the rouble, has with post-Soviet hyperinflation become valueless. The official rate of exchange (курс) was approximately £1 = 50 roubles in mid-2004.

Salaries are described in monthly terms (e.g. во´сeмь ты´сяч рублe´й в

мe´сяц, 8,000 roubles a month).

Russian pre-revolutionary coins, the names of which may be

encountered in classical literature and pre-revolutionary documents, included the aлты´н (3 kopecks), гри´внa (10 kopecks) and полти´нник

(50 kopecks).

The names of the main foreign currencies that are used or are familiar in Russia are: до´ллaр, dollar; фунт, pound; фрaнк, Swiss franc; and latterly e´вро, euro.

6.3

Fractions and presentation of numerals

A decimal point is indicated in writing by a comma and is read as

follows:

3,1

три цe´лых и однa´ дeся´тaя (чaсть, part, is understood) 4,2

чeты´рe цe´лых и двe дeся´тых

5,5

пять цe´лых и пять дeся´тых

7,6

сeмь цe´лых и шeсть дeся´тых

8,9

во´сeмь цe´лых и дe´вять дeся´тых

Because the comma is used to indicate a decimal point it cannot be

used to separate blocks in numbers involving thousands and millions, which may instead be spaced out in the following way:

23 987

двa´дцaть три ты´сячи дeвятьсо´т во´сeмьдeсят сeмь

2 564 000

двa миллио´нa пятьсо´т шeстьдeся´т чeты´рe ты´сячи

6.4

Time

The 24-hour clock is widely used for all official purposes, e.g.

Конфeрe´нция нaчинaéтся в

The conference begins at 3.00 pm.

15.00 чaсо´в.

Поéзд отпрaвляéтся в 21.00 чaс.

The train leaves at 9.00 pm.

207

Language and everyday life

If the 24-hour clock is not used, and one needs to specify which part of the day one is talking about, then one of the following forms (in the genitive case) should follow the stated time:

yтрa´

in the morning

дня

in the afternoon

вe´чeрa

in the evening

но´чи

in the night

e.g. в во´сeмь чaсо´в утрa´, at eight in the morning; в дe´сять чaсо´в

вe´чeрa, at ten in the evening.

Note:

вe´чeр implies any time up until bedtime, whilst ночь indicates the period after midnight. English-speakers should note in particular that tonight in the sense of this evening should be translated сeго´дня вe´чeром.

In R1/2 time is frequently presented in simplified forms such as три

двa´дцaть, three twenty or во´сeмь три´дцaть пять, eight thirty-five, rather than the more cumbersome двa´дцaть мину´т чeтвёртого and бeз

двaдцaти´ пяти´ дe´вять, respectively. Forms such as полсeдьмо´го, half (past) six, are also preferred in R1/2 to the fuller полови´нa сeдьмо´го.

Russia contains eleven time zones. Speakers may therefore need to

specify which time zone they have in mind, e.g. в дe´сять чaсо´в по

моско´вскому врe´мeни, at ten o’clock Moscow time.

6.5

Telephone numbers

In big cities these will normally consist of seven digits, which will be divided up and read in the following way:

243-71-59 двe´сти со´рок три, сe´мьдeсят оди´н, пятьдeся´т дe´вять

391-64-27 три´стa дeвяно´сто оди´н, шeстьдeся´т чeты´рe, двa´дцaть

сeмь

However, it would also be perfectly acceptable nowadays for the

foreign speaker, for the sake of convenience, to treat each digit

separately.

6.6

Postal addresses

These have until recently been presented in inverse order to that used in English, that is to say in the order country, postcode, town, street, building, addressee. The abbreviations к. (ко´рпус, block), д. (дом, house), кв. (квaрти´рa, flat) may be used. The name of the addressee is put in the dative case. Examples:

Pосси´я 197343,

г. Кaлу´гa 253223,

Mосквa´,

ул. циолко´вского,

208

6.8

Public notices

ул. Taшкe´нтскaя,

д. 3a, кв. 22,

д. 23, кв. 36,

Пa´влову C.Г.

Eлисeéвой B.A.

However, since 1997 Russian practice has changed, perhaps in order to bring it in line with Western European practice, so that an address

should be set out in the following way:

Кому´: Ко´зырeву B.A.

Кудa´: ул. Cтa´рый Aрбa´т, д. 3, кв. 5,

Mосквa´,

Pосси´я 119026.

6.7

Family relationships

Russian has what to an English-speaker is a bewildering multiplicity of terms to denote family relationships, including e.g. шу´рин,

brother-in-law (wife’s brother); своя´к, brother-in-law (husband of wife’s sister); своя´чeницa, sister-in-law (wife’s sister); дe´вeрь (m), brother-in-law (husband’s brother); золо´вкa, sister-in-law (husband’s sister); зять (m), brother-in-law (sister’s husband or husband’s sister’s husband) or son-in-law; and нeвe´сткa, sister-in-law (brother’s wife) or daughter-in-law (son’s wife). Fortunately for the foreign learner, however, these terms now have largely historical significance. They were once widespread in the extended family in the rural community, and may be encountered

in classical literature, but they are not used in modern urban society.

One still does need, though, to know the terms for father-in-law and mother-in-law, which have to be rendered in different ways depending on whether the speaker has in mind the parents of the wife (жeнa´) or the husband (муж), viz:

тeсть (m)

father-in-law (father of one’s wife)

тёщa

mother-in-law (mother of one’s wife)

свёкор

father-in-law (father of one’s husband)

свeкро´вь (f )

mother-in-law (mother of one’s husband)

To translate brother-in-law or sister-in-law an appropriate descriptive phrase such as брaт жeны´, wife’s brother, жeнa´ брa´тa, brother’s wife, or муж сeстры´, sister’s husband should now be used.

6.8

Public notices

A number of grammatical structures are characteristic of public

notices, the language of which may be seen as a variety of R3b.

(a)

Where an order or prohibition is expressed the imperative is often

rendered by an infinitive form. In an instruction the infinitive is

209

Language and everyday life

perfective, whilst in a prohibition with the particle нe it is imperfective, e.g.

Пристeгну´ть рeмни´. (in plane)

Fasten seatbelts.

При aвa´рии рaзби´ть стeкло´ молотко´м. (in bus and underground) In the event of an accident break the glass with the hammer.

Pукa´ми нe тро´гaть. (in museum)

Do not touch.

He кури´ть.

No smoking.

He входи´ть в пaльто´. (in offices, etc.)

Do not enter in your coat.

He бe´гaть по эскaлa´торaм. (in underground stations)

Do not run up and down the escalators.

He прислоня´ться. (on doors of underground train)

Do not lean.

По гaзо´нaм нe ходи´ть.

Keep off the grass.

(b)

Instructions and prohibitions may also be couched in the imperative, e.g.

Пройди´тe дa´льшe в вaго´н. (in tram)

Pass down the vehicle.

Cоблюдa´й дистa´нцию. (on back of road vehicle)

Keep your distance.

He отвлeкa´йтe води´тeля посторо´нними рaзгово´рaми. (in bus) Do not distract the driver by talking to him.

He стой под стрeло´й. (on crane)

Do not stand under the arm.

(c)

Prohibitions may also be expressed with a past passive participle, e.g.

Bход посторо´нним зaпрeщён.

Unauthorised persons not admitted.

Кури´ть зaпрeщeно´.

Smoking prohibited.

Купa´ться зaпрeщeно´. Oпa´сно для жи´зни.

Bathing prohibited. Danger of death. (lit dangerous to life) Приноси´ть и рaспивa´ть спиртныé нaпи´тки зaпрeщeно´.

It is forbidden to bring and consume alcoholic drinks.

(d)

An exhortation may be couched in a third-person-plural form, or with the words про´сьбa, request, or про´сим, we ask, e.g.

У нaс нe ку´рят.

No smoking here.

Про´сьбa зaкрывa´ть двeрь.

Please close the door.

210

6.9 Abbreviations

Про´сьбa живо´тных нe корми´ть. (in zoo)

Please do not feed the animals.

Про´сьбa/про´сим сдaвa´ть су´мки. (in self-service shop)

Please hand in your bags.

(e)

Statements providing information, and also prohibitions, are often

rendered by a reflexive verb, e.g.

Bыéмкa пи´сeм произво´дится в 8 чaсо´в. (on letter box)

Collection of letters takes place at 8.00 (am).

Cтол нe обслу´живaeтся. (in restaurant)

No service at this table.

Bход посторо´нним стро´го воспрeщaéтся. (e.g. on building site) Entry to people who have no business here strictly forbidden.

(f )

Some notices or instructions incorporate gerunds (see 9.7.1–9.7.2,

11.11.1), which are characteristic of R3, e.g.

Уходя´, гaси´тe свeт.

Turn out the light when you leave.

Oпускa´я письмо´, провe´рьтe нaли´чиe и´ндeксa.

Check that you have put the postcode on when you post your letter.

(g)

Miscellaneous notices:

зaкры´то нa´ зиму. (on train windows) Closed for the winter.

зaкры´то нa рeмо´нт. (ubiquitous)

Closed for repairs.

зaкры´т нa учёт/пeрeучёт. (in shops)

Closed for stock-taking.

иди´тe. (at road crossing)

Go.

жди´тe. (at road crossing)

Wait.

Cто´йтe. (at road crossing)

Stop.

К сeбe´. (on doors)

Pull.

Oт сeбя´. (on doors)

Push.

Cтоп! (at road crossing, etc.)

Stop.

Oсторо´жно! Bысо´коe нaпряжe´ниe.

Warning. High voltage.

Oсторо´жно! Oкрa´шeно.

Caution. Wet paint.

6.9

Abbreviations of titles, weights, measures and

common expressions

бул.

бульвa´р

boulevard, avenue

в.

вeк

century

грaмм

gram

г.

год

year

г.

го´род

town, city

г.

господи´н

гa

гeктa´р

hectare

211

Language and everyday life

г-жa

госпожa´

Mrs

гл.

глa´вный

main

гoc.

госудa´рствeнный

state

д.

дом

house

до н.э.

до нa´шeй э´ры

ж.д.

жeлe´знaя доро´гa

railway

жит.

жи´тeли

inhabitants

и т.д.

и тaк дa´лee

etc., and so on

и т.п.

и тому´ подо´бноe

etc., and so on

изд-во

издa´тeльство

publishing house, press

им.

и´мeни

named after

ин-т

институ´т

institute

кв.

квaрти´рa

flat, apartment

кг

килогрa´мм

kilogram

к-т

комитe´т

committee

к/ч

киломe´тры в чaс

kilometres per hour

мeтр

metre

м.

мину´тa

minute

мин-во

министe´рство

ministry

мор.

морско´й

naval, marine

нaпр.

нaпримe´р

e.g.

нaр.

нaро´дный

people’s

нaц.

нaционa´льный

national

н.ст.

но´вый стиль

New Style (post-revolutionary

calendar)

н.э.

нa´шeй э´ры

о.

о´стров

island

об.

о´блaсть

province

оз.

о´зeро

lake

пл.

пло´щaдь

square

пр.

проспe´кт

avenue

р.

рeкa´

river

р.

рубль

rouble

р-н

рaйо´н

region

с.г.

сeго´ го´дa

of this year

см.

смотри´(тe)

see, vide

ср.

срaвни´

compare, cf.

ст.ст.

стa´рый стиль

Old Style (pre-revolutionary

calendar)

212

6.10

Acronyms and alphabetisms

стр.

стрaни´цa

page

с.х.

сeльскохозя´йствeнный

agricultural

то´ннa

tonne

т.

том

volume

т.e.

тоéсть

that is to say, i.e.

т.к.

тaк кaк

since

ул.

у´лицa

street

ун-т

унивeрситe´т

university

ф.ст.

фунт стe´рлингов

pound sterling

ч.

чaс

hour, o’clock

6.10

Acronyms and alphabetisms

Acronyms and alphabetisms function as nouns. They have a gender of

their own, and many (those which can be pronounced as a single

word, as opposed to a succession of individual letters) also decline, e.g.

зAГC, register office; OOH, UN(O), which decline like masculine nouns ending in a hard consonant.

Acronyms and alphabetisms continue to abound in the Russian

press and most of those given below will therefore be widely

understood.

Those acronyms and alphabetisms which denote Soviet institutions

or phenomena or the names of countries or institutions in the

communist world as a whole and whose significance is now mainly

historical are indicated below with an asterisk.

AзC

aвтозaпрa´вочнaя стa´нция

petrol station

AиΦ

Aргумe´нты и Φa´кты

Arguments and Facts (weekly

newspaper)

Aкaдe´мия нaу´к

Academy of Sciences

AH-

Aнто´нов-

Antonov (Russian aircraft)

ACEAH

Aссоциa´ция госудa´рств

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

Юго-Bосто´чной ´

Aзии

( ASEAN )

AЭC

a´томнaя элeктростa´нция

atomic power-station

БAM

Бaйкa´ло-Aму´рскaя мaгистрa´ль

Baikal-Amur Railway (i.e. East Siberian

railway)

бомж

бeз опрeдeлённого мe´стa жи´тeльствa lit without definite abode, i.e. vagrant, down-and-out

БTP

бро`нeтрaнспортёр

armoured personnel carrier

BBП

вaлово´й вну´трeнний проду´кт

gross domestic product ( GDP)

BBC

Bоe´нно-Bозду´шныe Cи´лы

air force

BдHX

Bы´стaвкa достижe´ний нaро´дного

exhibition of Soviet economic

хозя´йствa

achievements (in Moscow)

213

Language and everyday life

BMΦ

Bоe´нно-Mорско´й Φлот

(military) navy

BHП

вaлово´й нaционa´льный проду´кт

gross national product ( GNP)

BOB

Beли´кaя отe´чeствeннaя войнa´

lit Great War of the Fatherland, i.e.

Second World War

BOз

Bсeми´рнaя оргaнизa´ция

World Health Organisation ( WHO)

здрàвоохрaнe´ния

BПК

воe´нно-промы´шлeнный ко´мплeкс

military–industrial complex

вооружённыe си´лы

armed forces

BTO

Bсeми´рнaя торго´вaя оргaнизa´ция

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

BУз

вы´сшee учe´бноe зaвeдe´ниe

higher educational institution

ГAи

Госудa´рствeннaя aвтомоби´льнaя

Soviet/Russian traffic police

инспe´кция

ГATT

Гeнeрa´льноe соглaшe´ниe о тaри´фaх

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

и торго´влe

( GATT )

ГдP ∗

Гeрмa´нскaя дeмокрaти´чeскaя

German Democratic Republic, i.e. former

Peспу´бликa

East Germany

ГКчП ∗

Госудa´рствeнный Комитe´т

Committee responsible for putsch in

чрeзвычa´йного Положe´ния

USSR in August 1991

ГPУ ∗

Глa´вноe рaзвe´дывaтeльноe

Soviet military intelligence

упрaвлe´ниe

ГУBд

Госудa´рствeнноe упрaвлe´ниe

Ministry of Internal Affairs

вну´трeнних дeл

Г ЭC

ги`дроэлeктростa´нция

hydroelectric power-station

дTП

доро´жно-трa´нспортноe происшe´ствиe road accident

Eвропe´йскоe соо´бщeство/

European Community ( EC ) /European

Eвропe´йский сою´з

Union ( EU )

жКX

жили´щно-коммунa´льноe хозя´йство communal housing service зAГC

(отдe´л) зa´писи a´ктов грaждa´нского

состоя´ния

ил-

илью´шин-

Iliushin (Russian aircraft)

иMли

институ´т мирово´й литeрaту´ры

Institute of World Literature

(in Moscow)

КГБ ∗

Комитe´т госудa´рствeнной

Committee of State Security ( KGB)

бeзопa´сности

КHдP

Корe´йскaя

North Korea

Haро´дно-дeмокрaти´чeскaя

рeспу´бликa

КПPΦ

Коммунисти´чeскaя пa´ртия

Communist Party of the Russian

Pосси´йской Φeдeрa´ции

Federation

КПCC ∗

Коммунисти´чeскaя пa´ртия

Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Cовe´тского Cою´зa

( CPSU)

214

6.10

Acronyms and alphabetisms

лГУ

лeнингрa´дский госудa´рствeнный

Leningrad State University

унивeрситe´т

MAГATЭ

Meждунaро´дноe aгe´нтство по

International Atomic Energy Agency

a´томной энe´ргии

( IAEA)

MБPP

Meждунaро´дный бaнк

International Bank for Reconstruction

рeконстру´кции и рaзви´тия

and Development

MГУ

Mоско´вский госудa´рствeнный

Moscow State University

унивeрситe´т

MHP

Mонго´льскaя Haро´днaя Peспу´бликa

Mongolian People’s Republic

Mинистe´рство оборо´ны

Ministry of Defence

MПC

Mинистe´рство путe´й сообщe´ния

Ministry of Communications

MXAT

Mоско´вский худо´жeствeнный

Moscow Arts Theatre

aкaдeми´чeский тea´тр

HATO

Cèвeроaтлaнти´чeский сою´з

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

( NATO)

Hии

нaу´чно-исслe´довaтeльский институ´т scientific research institute HКBд ∗

Haро´дный комиссaриa´т вну´трeнних

People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs

дeл

(Soviet police agency, 1934–43)

HЭП ∗

но´вaя экономи´чeскaя поли´тикa

New Economic Policy (of 1920s)

OAЭ

Oбъeдинённыe Aрa´бскиe Эмирa´ты

United Arab Emirates

OBд ∗

Oргaнизa´ция Baршa´вского догово´рa Warsaw Treaty Organisation OBиP

Oтдe´л виз и рeгистрa´ции

visa and registration department

OOH

Oргaнизa´ция Oбъeдинённых Ha´ций

United Nations Organisation ( UN)

OOП

Oргaнизa´ция Oсвобождe´ния

Palestine Liberation Organisation ( PLO)

Пaлeсти´ны

OПEК

Oргaнизa´ция стрaн-экспортёров

Organisation of Petroleum Exporting

нe´фти

Countries ( OPEC)

OЭCP

Oргaнизa´ция экономи´чeского

Organisation for Economic Co-operation

сотру´дничeствa и рaзви´тия

and Development ( OECD)

ПBO

про´тиво-возду´шнaя оборо´нa

anti-aircraft defence

PAH

Pосси´йскaя Aкaдe´мия нaу´к

Russian Academy of Sciences

PΦ

Pосси´йскaя Φeдeрa´ция

Russian Federation

CКB

свобо´дно-конвeрти´руeмaя вaлю´тa

convertible currency

CHГ

Cодру´жeство нeзaви´симых

Commonwealth of Independent States

госудa´рств

( CIS)

CП

совмe´стноe прeдприя´тиe

joint venture

CCCP ∗

Cою´з Cовe´тских Cоциaлисти´чeских

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Peспу´блик

( USSR)

CшA

Cоeдинённыe штa´ты Aмe´рики

United States of America ( USA)

CЭB ∗

Cовe´т Экономи´чeской

Council for Mutual Economic Aid

взaимопо´мощи

( COMECON)

215

Language and everyday life

TACC ∗

Teлeгрa´фноe aгe´нтство Cовe´тского

TASS, i.e. the Soviet news agency

Cою´зa

тeлeви´дeниe

THК

трàнснaционa´льныe корпорa´ции

multinational corporations

TУ-

Tу´полeв-

Tupolev (Russian aircraft)

ΦБP

Φeдeрa´льноe бюро´ рaсслe´довaний

Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI)

ΦPГ ∗

Φeдeрaти´внaя Peспу´бликa Гeрмa´нии Federal German Republic, i.e. former West Germany

ΦCБ

Φeдeрa´льнaя слу´жбa бeзопa´сности

Federal Security Service

цБP

цeнтрa´льный бaнк Pосси´и

Central Bank of Russia

цК ∗

цeнтрa´льный Комитe´т

Central Committee (of CPSU)

цPУ

цeнтрa´льноe рaзвe´дывaтeльноe

Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA)

упрaвлe´ниe

чП

чрeзвычa´йноe происшe´ствиe

lit extreme event, i.e. emergency, some

natural or man-made disaster

ЮHECКO

Oргaнизa´ция OOH по вопро´сaм

United Nations Educational, Scientific

обрaзовa´ния, нaу´ки и культу´ры

and Cultural Organisation ( UNESCO)

6.11

Names of countries and nationalities

The following lists are not exhaustive, but give the names of most

countries of the world, grouped according to continent or region,

together with the adjectives formed from them and the nouns

denoting male and female representatives of each nationality.

The suffixes most commonly used to denote nationality are -eц and

-нин, for males, and -кa and -нкa for females. However, in certain instances the expected feminine form cannot be used or at least seems unnatural to native speakers (and is therefore omitted from the lists in the following sections). In other instances no noun at all is derived from the name of the country to denote nationality, or at least Russians might hesitate to use a form that does in theory exist. When in doubt as to whether a particular noun denoting nationality may be used one may have recourse to a phrase with жи´тeли, inhabitants, e.g. жи´тeли

Буру´нди, people who live in Burundi.

In some foreign words the letter e is pronounced э; this pronunciation is indicated in brackets after the word in question. An asterisk after a place-name in this section indicates that the noun in question is indeclinable.

Note:

nouns and adjectives denoting nationality do not begin with a capital letter in Russian (see also 11.16).

6.11.1

Russia and the other states of the former Soviet Union

In this table the name of the former Soviet republic is given in brackets where it differs from the name of the new state.

216

6.11 Names of countries and nationalities

country

adjective

man/woman

Russia

Pосси´я

ру´сский

ру´сский/ру´сскaя

Russian Federation

Pосси´йскaя Φeдeрa´ция

росси´йский

россия´нин/россия´нкa

Note:

росси´йский, as mentioned in 1.1, has come to be used to denote the nationality, which embraces people who are not ethnically Russian and things which are not culturally Russian.

Armenia

Aрмe´ния

aрмя´нский

aрмяни´н/aрмя´нкa

Azerbaijan

Aзeрбaйджa´н

aзeрбaйджa´нский aзeрбaйджa´нeц/

aзeрбaйджa´нкa

Belarus

Бeлaру´сь (f ) (Бeлору´ссия)

бeлору´сский

бeлору´с/бeлору´скa

Estonia

Эсто´ния

эсто´нский

эсто´нeц/эсто´нкa

Georgia

Гру´зия

грузи´нский

грузи´н/грузи´нкa

Kazakhstan

Кaзaхстa´н

кaзa´хский

кaзa´х/кaзa´шкa

Kyrgyzstan (Kirgizia)

Кыргызстa´н (Кирги´зия)

кирги´зский

кирги´з/кирги´зкa

Latvia

лa´твия

лaты´шский or

лaты´ш/лaты´шкa

лaтви´йский

Lithuania

литвa´

лито´вский

лито´вeц/лито´вкa

Moldova

Mолдо´вa (Mолдa´вия)

молдa´вский оr

молдaвa´нин/

молдaвa´нский

молдaвa´нкa

Tadjikistan

Taджикистa´н

тaджи´кский

тaджи´к/тaджи´чкa

Turkmenistan

Tуркмeнистa´н (Tуркмe´ния) туркмe´нский

туркмe´н/туркмe´нкa

Ukraine

Укрaи´нa

укрaи´нский

укрaи´нeц/укрaи´нкa

Uzbekistan

Узбeкистa´н

узбe´кский

узбe´к/узбe´чкa

6.11.2

Other regions and national minorities of Russia and

the former Soviet Union

region

adjective

ethnic group

Abkhazia

Aбхa´зия

aбхa´зский

aбхa´зeц/aбхa´зкa

Baikal region

зaбaйкa´льe

зaбaйкa´льский

зaбaйкa´лeц

Baltic region

Прибa´лтикa (also

прибaлти´йский

прибa´лт(иéц)/

Бa´лтия)

прибaлти´йкa

Bashkiria

Бaшки´рия

бaшки´рский

бaшки´р/бaшки´ркa

black earth region

чeрнозём

чeрнозёмный

Buriat region

Буря´тия

буря´тский

буря´т/буря´ткa

Caucasus

Кaвкa´з

кaвкa´зский

кaвкa´зeц/кaвкa´зкa

Chechnia

чeчня´

чeчe´нский

чeчe´нeц/чeчe´нкa

Chuvash region

чувa´шия

чувa´шский

чувa´ш/чувa´шкa

217

Language and everyday life

Crimea

Крым

кры´мский

крымчa´нин/

крымчa´нкa

Note:

in the Crimea, в Крыму´.

Dagestan

дaгeстa´н

дaгeстa´нский

дaгeстa´нeц/дaгeстa´нкa

Ingushetia

ингушe´тия

ингу´шский

ингу´ш/ингу´шкa

Kalmyk region

Кaлмы´кия

кaлмы´цкий

кaлмы´к/кaлмы´чкa

Karelia

Кaрe´лия

кaрe´льский

кaрe´л/кaрe´лкa

Kuban

Кубa´нь (f )

кубa´нский

кубa´нeц/кубa´нкa

Note:

in the Kuban, нa Кубa´ни.

Mari Republic

Maри´йскaя

мaри´йский

мaриéц/мaри´йкa оr

Peспу´бликa

мa´ри (m and f, indecl)

Mordvin region

Mордо´вия

мордо´вский

мордви´н/мордви´нкa;

also мордвa´ (collect)

Moscow region

Подмоско´вьe

подмоско´вный

mountain region (i.e.

го´ры

го´рный or го´рский

го´рцы (pl; sg го´рeц)

Caucasus)

Ossetia

Oсe´тия

осeти´нский

осeти´н/осeти´нкa

Siberia

Cиби´рь (f )

сиби´рский

сибиря´к/сибиря´чкa

steppe

стeпь (f )

стeпно´й

taiga

тaйгa´

тaёжный

тaёжник

Tatarstan

Taтaрстa´н

тaтa´рский

тaтa´рин/тaтa´ркa

Transcaucasia

зaкaвкa´зьe

зaкaвкa´зский

tundra

ту´ндрa

ту´ндровый

Udmurt region

Удму´ртия

удму´ртский

удму´рт/удму´рткa

White Sea coast

Ce´вeрноe помо´рьe

помо´рский

помо´р/помо´ркa

Yakutia

Яку´тия/Ca´хa

яку´тский

яку´т/яку´ткa

6.11.3

Europe (Eвр ´опa)

country

adjective

man/woman

Albania

Aлбa´ния

aлбa´нский

aлбa´нeц/aлбa´нкa

Austria

Aвстрия

aвстри´йский

aвстриéц/aвстри´йкa

Belgium

Бe´льгия

бeльги´йский

бeльгиéц/бeльги´йкa

Bosnia

Бо´сния

босни´йский

босниéц/босни´йкa

Bulgaria

Болгa´рия

болгa´рский

болгa´рин/болгa´ркa

Croatia

Xорвa´тия

хорвa´тский

хорвa´т/хорвa´ткa

Czech Republic

чe´шскaя Peспу´бликa чe´шский

чeх/чe´шкa

218

6.11 Names of countries and nationalities

Denmark

дa´ния

дa´тский

дaтчa´нин/дaтчa´нкa

England

Aнглия

aнгли´йский

aнгличa´нин/

aнгличa´нкa

Finland

Φинля´ндия

фи´нский

финн/фи´нкa

France

Φрa´нция

фрaнцу´зский

фрaнцу´з/фрaнцу´жeнкa

Germany

Гeрмa´ния

нeмe´цкий

нe´мeц/нe´мкa

Great Britain

Beликобритa´ния

бритa´нский/

бритa´нeц/бритa´нкa

aнгли´йский

aнгличa´нин/

aнгличa´нкa

Note:

aнгли´йский, aнгличa´нин, aнгличa´нкa tend to be used to encompass where necessary all things British or all British people unless it is intended to make specific reference to Scottish or Welsh things or people.

Greece

Грe´ция

грe´чeский

грeк/грeчa´нкa

Holland

Голлa´ндия/

голлa´ндский/

голлa´ндeц/голлa´ндкa оr

Hидeрлa´нды

нидeрлa´ндский

нидeрлa´ндeц/

нидeрлa´ндкa

Hungary

Be´нгрия

вeнгe´рский

вeнгр/вeнгe´ркa

Iceland

ислa´ндия

ислa´ндский

ислa´ндeц/ислa´ндкa

Ireland

ирлa´ндия

ирлa´ндский

ирлa´ндeц/ирлa´ндкa

Italy

итa´лия

итaлья´нский

итaлья´нeц/итaлья´нкa

Luxembourg

люксeмбу´рг

люксeмбу´ргский

люксeмбу´ржeц/

люксeмбу´ржкa

Norway

Hорвe´гия

норвe´жский

норвe´жeц/норвe´жкa

Poland

По´льшa

по´льский

поля´к/по´лькa

Portugal

Португa´лия

португa´льский

португa´лeц/

португa´лкa

Romania

Pумы´ния

румы´нский

румы´н/румы´нкa

Scotland

шотлa´ндия

шотлa´ндский

шотлa´ндeц/

шотлa´ндкa

Serbia

Ce´рбия

сe´рбский

сeрб/сe´рбкa or

сeрбия´нкa

Slovakia

Cловa´кия

словa´цкий

словa´к/словa´чкa

Slovenia

Cловe´ния

словe´нский

словe´нeц/словe´нкa

Spain

испa´ния

испa´нский

испa´нeц/испa´нкa

Sweden

швe´ция

швe´дский

швeд/швe´дкa

Switzerland

швeйцa´рия

швeйцa´рский

швeйцa´рeц/

швeйцa´ркa

Wales

Уэ´льс

уэ´льский/

уэ´льсeц оr

вaлли´йский

вaллиéц/вaлли´йкa

219

Language and everyday life

6.11.4

Africa ( Áфрикa)

country

adjective

man/woman

Algeria

Aлжи´р

aлжи´рский

aлжи´рeц/aлжи´ркa

Angola

Aнго´лa

aнго´льский

aнго´лeц/aнго´лкa

Benin

Бeни´н

бeни´нский

бeниéц/бeни´йкa

Botswana

Ботсвa´нa

ботсвa´нский

жи´тeли Ботсвa´ны

Burundi

Буру´нди ∗

бурунди´йский

жи´тeли Буру´нди

Cameroon

Кaмeру´н

кaмeру´нский

кaмeру´нeц/кaмeру´нкa

Chad

чaд

чa´дский

жи´тeли чa´дa

Egypt

Eги´пeт

eги´пeтский

eгиптя´нин/eгиптя´нкa

Ethiopia

Эфио´пия

эфио´пский

эфио´п/эфио´пкa

Ghana

Гa´нa

гa´нский

гa´нeц/гa´нкa

Ivory Coast

Бe´рeг Cлоно´вой

жи´тeли Бe´рeгa

Ко´сти

Cлоно´вой Ко´сти

Kenya

Кe´ния

кeни´йский

кeниéц/кeни´йкa

Libya

ли´вия

ливи´йский

ливиéц/ливи´йкa

Mauritania

Maвритa´ния

мaвритa´нский

мaвритa´нeц/

мaвритa´нкa

Morocco

Maро´кко ∗

мaроккa´нский

мaроккa´нeц/

мaроккa´нкa

Mozambique

Mозaмби´к

мозaмби´кский

жи´тeли Mозaмби´кa

Namibia

Haми´бия

нaмиби´йский

жи´тeли Haми´бии

Nigeria

Hигe´рия

нигeри´йский

нигeриéц/нигeри´йкa

Rwanda

Pуa´ндa

руaнди´йский

руaндиéц/руaнди´йкa

Senegal

Ceнeгa´л

сeнeгa´льский

сeнeгa´лeц/сeнeгa´лкa

Somalia

Cомaли´ ∗

сомaли´йский

сомaлиéц/сомaли´йкa

South Africa

´жно-Aфрикa´нскaя

ю`жноaфрикa´нский

жи´тeли ЮA´P

Peспу´бликa (ЮA´P)

Sudan

Cудa´н

судa´нский

судa´нeц/судa´нкa

Tanzania

Taнзa´ния

тaнзaни´йский

тaнзaниéц/тaнзaни´йкa

Togo

Tо´го

тоголe´зский

тоголe´зeц/тоголe´зкa

Tunisia

Tуни´с

туни´сский

туни´сeц/туни´скa

Uganda

Угa´ндa

угa´ндский

угa´ндeц/угa´ндкa

Zaire

зaи´р

зaи´рский

зaи´рeц/зaи´ркa

Zambia

зa´мбия

зaмби´йский

зaмбиéц/зaмби´йкa

Zimbabwe

зимбa´бвe ∗

зимбaбви´йский

зимбaбвиéц/

зимбaбви´йкa

220

6.11 Names of countries and nationalities

6.11.5

America (Aмe´рикa)

country

adjective

man/woman

Argentina

Aргeнти´нa

aргeнти´нский

aргeнти´нeц/aргeнти´нкa

Bolivia

Боли´вия

боливи´йский

боливиéц/боливи´йкa

Brazil

Брaзи´лия

брaзи´льский

брaзи´лeц/брaзилья´нкa

Canada

Кaнa´дa

кaнa´дский

кaнa´дeц/кaнa´дкa

Chile

чи´ли ∗

чили´йский

чилиéц/чили´йкa

Colombia

Колу´мбия

колумби´йский

колумбиéц/колумби´йкa

Costa Rica

Ко´стa-Pи´кa

костaрикa´нский

костaрикa´нeц/

костaрикa´нкa

Ecuador

Эквaдо´р

эквaдо´рский

эквaдо´рeц/эквaдо´ркa

El Salvador

Caльвaдо´р

сaльвaдо´рский

сaльвaдо´рeц/сaльвaдо´ркa

Guatemala

Гвaтeмa´лa (тэ)

гвaтeмa´льский

гвaтeмa´лeц/гвaтeмa´лкa

Guyana

Гaйa´нa

гaйa´нский

гaйa´нeц/гaйa´нкa

Honduras

Гондурa´с

гондурa´сский

гондурa´сeц/гондурa´скa

Mexico

Me´ксикa

мeксикa´нский

мeксикa´нeц/мeксикa´нкa

Nicaragua

Hикaрa´гуa

никaрaгуa´нский

никaрaгуa´нeц/

никaрaгуa´нкa

Panama

Пaнa´мa

пaнa´мский

жи´тeли Пaнa´мы

Paraguay

Пaрaгвa´й

пaрaгвa´йский

пaрaгвaéц/пaрaгвa´йкa

Peru

Пeру´ ∗

пeруa´нский

пeруa´нeц/пeруa´нкa

United States of

Cоeдинённыe

aмeрикa´нский

aмeрикa´нeц/aмeрикa´нкa

America

штa´ты Aмe´рики

Uruguay

Уругвa´й

уругвa´йский

уругвaéц/уругвa´йкa

Venezuela

Beнeсуэ´лa

вeнeсуэ´льский

вeнeсуэ´лeц/вeнeсуэ´лкa

6.11.6

Asia ( Áзия)

country

adjective

man/woman

Afghanistan

Aфгaнистa´н

aфгa´нский

aфгa´нeц/aфгa´нкa

Bangladesh

Бaнглaдe´ш

бaнглaдe´шский

бaнглaдe´шeц/бaнглaдe´шкa

Burma

Би´рмa

бирмa´нский

бирмa´нeц/бирмa´нкa

Cambodia

Кaмбо´джa/

кaмбоджи´йский/

кaмбоджиéц/кaмбоджи´йкa оr

Кaмпучи´я

кaмпучи´йский

кaмпучиéц/кaмпучи´йкa

China

Китa´й

китa´йский

китaéц/китaя´нкa

Note:

китa´йкa cannot be used for Chinese woman; it used to mean nankeen (type of cloth).

221

Language and everyday life

India

и´ндия

инди´йский

индиéц/индиa´нкa

Note 1

The forms инду´с/инду´скa, originally Hindu, are often used instead of индиéц/индиa´нкa.

The adjective индe´йский and the noun индeéц refer to American Indians.

The feminine form индиa´нкa may refer to an Indian woman of either race. The noun индe´йкa means turkey.

Indonesia

индонe´зия

индонeзи´йский

индонeзиéц/индонeзи´йкa

Iran

ирa´н

ирa´нский

ирa´нeц/ирa´нкa

Note:

the forms Пe´рсия, пeрси´дский, and пeрс/пeрсия´нкa also occur, but like their English equivalents ( Persia, Persian, Persian man/woman) they are not used with reference to the modern state of Iran.

Japan

Япо´ния

япо´нский

япо´нeц/япо´нкa

Korea

Корe´я

корe´йский

корeéц/корeя´нкa

Note:

корe´йкa cannot be used for Korean woman; it means brisket (meat).

Laos

лaо´с

лaо´сский

лaотя´нин/лaотя´нкa

Malaya

Maлa´йя

мaлa´йский

мaлaéц/мaлa´йкa

Malaysia

Maлa´йзия

мaлaйзи´йский

мaлaйзиéц/мaлaйзи´йкa

Mongolia

Mонго´лия

монго´льский

монго´л/монго´лкa

Nepal

Heпa´л

нeпa´льский

нeпa´лeц/нeпa´лкa

Pakistan

Пaкистa´н

пaкистa´нский

пaкистa´нeц/пaкистa´нкa

Singapore

Cингaпу´р

сингaпу´рский

сингaпу´рeц/сингaпу´ркa

Sri Lanka

шри-лa´нкa

шрилaнки´йский

жи´тeли шри-лa´нки or

(шри)лaнки´йцы

Thailand

Taилa´нд

тaилa´ндский/

тaилa´ндeц/тaилa´ндкa оr (in pl)

тa´йский

тa´йцы

Tibet

Tибe´т

тибe´тский

тибe´тeц/тибe´ткa

Vietnam

Bьeтнa´м

вьeтнa´мский

вьeтнa´мeц/вьeтнa´мкa

6.11.7

The Middle East (Бли´жний Bосто´к)

country

adjective

man/woman

Iraq

ирa´к

ирa´кский

жи´тeли ирa´кa or ирa´кцы

Israel

изрa´иль (m)

изрa´ильский

изрaильтя´нин/изрaильтя´нкa

Jordan

иордa´ния

иордa´нский

иордa´нeц/иордa´нкa

Kuwait

Кувe´йт

кувe´йтский

жи´тeли Кувe´йтa or

кувeйтя´нe

Lebanon

ливa´н

ливa´нский

ливa´нeц/ливa´нкa

222

6.12 Inhabitants of Russian cities

Palestine

Пaлeсти´нa

пaлeсти´нский

пaлeсти´нeц/пaлeсти´нкa

Saudi Arabia

Caу´довскaя Aрa´вия

сaу´довский

жи´тeли Caу´довской Aрa´вии

Syria

Cи´рия

сири´йский

сириéц/сири´йкa

Turkey

Tу´рция

турe´цкий

ту´рок/турчa´нкa

Note:

gen pl ту´рок, though ту´рков may be heard in R1.

Yemen

йe´мeн (мэ)

йe´мeнский

йe´мeнeц/йe´мeнкa

6.11.8

Australia and New Zealand

country

adjective

man/woman

Australia

Aвстрa´лия

aвстрaли´йский

aвстрaлиéц/aвстрaли´йкa

New Zealand

Hо´вaя зeлa´ндия

новозeлa´ндский

новозeлa´ндeц/новозeлa´ндкa

6.12

Words denoting inhabitants of Russian and former

Soviet cities

Nouns denoting natives or inhabitants of certain cities (e.g. Bristolian, Glaswegian, Londoner, Parisian) are rather more widely used in Russian than in English (at least in relation to natives or inhabitants of Russian cities). Moreover a wider range of suffixes (both masculine and

feminine) is in common use for this purpose than in English, e.g.

-eц/-кa, -aнин/-aнкa, -янин/-янкa, -ич/-ичкa, -як/-ячкa. However, it is not easy for the foreigner to predict which suffix should be applied to the name of a particular Russian city. A list is therefore given below of the nouns denoting natives or inhabitants of the major Russian

cities, and of some cities of other former republics of the USSR.

Several major cities (like the names of many streets, squares and

other public places) have been renamed in the post-Soviet period.

(Usually the pre-revolutionary name has been resurrected.) In such

cases the former Soviet name is given in brackets.

Note:

in the case of some of the less important cities the nouns denoting their inhabitants may rarely be used or may have only local currency.

city

adjective

inhabitant

Aрхa´нгeльск

aрхa´нгeльский

aрхaнгeлогоро´дeц/aрхaнгeлогоро´дкa

Aстрaхaнь (f )

aстрaхa´нский

aстрaхa´нeц/aстрaхa´нкa

Бaку´

бaки´нский

бaки´нeц/бaки´нкa

Bи´льнюс

ви´льнюсский

ви´льнюсeц/ви´льнюскa

Bлaдивосто´к

влaдивосто´кский

жи´тeль(ницa) Bлaдивосто´кa

223

Language and everyday life

Bлaди´мир

влaди´мирский

жи´тeль(ницa) Bлaди´мирa оr

влaди´мирeц/влaди´миркa

Bо´логдa

волого´дский

вологжa´нин/вологжa´нкa оr

волого´дeц/волого´дкa

Bоро´нeж

воро´нeжский

воро´нeжeц/воро´нeжкa

Bя´ткa (Ки´ров)

вя´тский

вя´тич/вя´тичкa

Eкaтeринбу´рг

eкaтeринбу´ржский

eкaтeринбу´ржeц/eкaтeринбу´ржeнкa

(Cвeрдло´вск)

Eкaтeринослa´в

eкaтeринослa´вский

eкaтeринослa´вeц/eкaтeринослa´вкa

(днèпропeтро´вск)

ирку´тск

ирку´тский

иркутя´нин/иркутя´нкa

Кaзa´нь (f )

кaзa´нский

кaзa´нeц/кaзa´нкa

Киéв

киéвский

киeвля´нин/киeвля´нкa

Костромa´

костромско´й

костроми´ч/костроми´чкa

Крaснодa´р

крaснодa´рский

крaснодa´рeц/крaснодa´ркa

Крaсноя´рск

крaсноя´рский

крaсноя´рeц/крaсноя´ркa

Курск

ку´рский

курчa´нин/курчa´нкa

львов

льво´вский

львовя´нин/львовя´нкa

Mинск

ми´нский

минчa´нин/минчa´нкa

Mосквa´

моско´вский

москви´ч/москви´чкa (also москвитя´нин/

москвитя´нкa; obs)

Hи´жний Hо´вгород

нижeгоро´дский

нижeгоро´дeц/нижeгоро´дкa

(Го´рький)

Hо´вгород

новгоро´дский

новгоро´дeц/новгоро´дкa

Hоворосси´йск

новоросси´йский

новороссиéц/новоросси´йкa

Hовосиби´рск

новосиби´рский

жи´тeли Hовосиби´рскa (also новосиби´рцы)

Oдe´ссa

одe´сский

одeсси´т/одeсси´ткa (pronunciation дэ also

possible)

Oмск

о´мский

оми´ч/омчa´нкa

Псков

пско´вский/псковско´й

псковитя´нин/псковитя´нкa

Пятиго´рск

пятиго´рский

пятигорчa´нин/пятигорчa´нкa

Pи´гa

ри´жский

рижa´нин/рижa´нкa

Pосто´в

росто´вский

ростовчa´нин/ростовчa´нкa

Pязa´нь (f )

рязa´нский

рязa´нeц/рязa´нкa

Caмa´рa

сaмa´рский

сaмaровчa´нин/сaмaровчa´нкa

(Ку´йбышeв)

Caнкт-Пeтeрбу´рг

пeтeрбу´ргский

пeтeрбу´ржeц/пeтeрбу´ржкa

(лeнингрa´д)

(лeнингрa´дский)

(лeнингрa´дeц/лeнингрa´дкa)

Caрa´тов

сaрa´товский

сaрaтовчa´нин/сaрaтовчa´нкa

(also сaрa´товeц)

Ceвaсто´поль (m)

сeвaсто´польский

сeвaсто´полeц

224

6.13

Jokes and puns

Cмолe´нск

смолe´нский

смоля´нин/смоля´нкa

Cо´чи

со´чинский

со´чинeц/со´чинкa

Ta´ллинн

тa´ллиннский

тa´ллинeц

Taмбо´в

тaмбо´вский

тaмбо´вeц/тaмбо´вкa

Ta´рту

тa´ртуский

жи´тeли Ta´рту

Tвeрь (f ) (Кaли´нин)

твeрско´й

твeря´к/твeря´чкa

Tомск

то´мский

томи´ч/томчa´нкa

Tу´лa

ту´льский

туля´к/туля´чкa

Xaбa´ровск

хaбa´ровский

хaбaровчa´нин/хaбaровчa´нкa

Xa´рьков

хa´рьковский

хaрьковчa´нин/хaрьковчa´нкa

´лтa

я´лтинский

я´лтинeц/я´лтинкa

Ярослa´вль (m)

ярослa´вский

ярослa´вeц

Note:

a noun of a similar sort to those denoting inhabitants of certain cities is derived from зeмля´, land, earth, i.e. зeмля´к/зeмля´чкa, which means person from the same region.

6.13

Jokes (aнeкдо´ты) and puns (кaлaмбу´ры)

Aнeкдо´ты, by which Russians mean a joke or little story that captures some aspect of the everyday world or a political situation in an

amusing way, have for a long time played an important role in Russian life. They express people’s reactions to official stupidity or to the absurdity of their situation or offer a generalised representation of topical political, economic or cultural events. They are also a useful source of linguistic material for the foreign learner.

Aнeкдо´ты had a particularly important function in Soviet times,

providing people with a verbal outlet for their frustration at the

mistakes or inefficiency of party officials. The low educational level of many party workers, for example, gave rise to the following popular

joke: знaéтe, почeму´ коммуни´сты вы´брaли срe´ду пaрти´йным днём?

Потому´ что они´ нe знa´ют кaк писa´ть вто´рник и чeтвe´рг, Do you know why Wednesday is the day for Communist Party meetings? Because they can’t spell ‘Tuesday’ or ‘Thursday’ (In Russian срeдaís slightly easier to spell than вто´рник or чeтвe´рг.)

The period of perestróika, especially Éltsin’s (i.e. Yeĺtsin’s) term in office, also gave rise to numerous jokes and puns which expressed a

jaundiced view of current affairs, e.g. кaтaстро´йкa, i.e. кaтaстро´фa, catastrophe, + пeрeстро´йкa; дeрьмокрa´тия, i.e. дeрьмо´, crap, instead of дeмо + крa´тия. People’s disappointment with the results of

privatisation, when they came to feel that they were getting nothing while a greedy few were becoming billionaires, found expression in the coinage прихвaтизa´ция, in which the insertion of the sound x turns the loanword привaтизa´ция into a noun with the Russian root хвaт,

suggesting snatching or stealing (see also the word олигa´рх in 5.1.2).

225

Language and everyday life

The recent inundation of the Russian language with anglicisms

(aнглици´змы), which reflects the post-Soviet openness and receptivity to what is going on in the outside world, has prompted numerous

letters to newspapers by people who have not been able to understand what they were reading in the Russian press. Misunderstanding of

anglicisms also lies behind a joke in the form of a dialogue between two boys, who think that three foreign words that are unfamiliar to

them all relate to the same subject (confectionery):

– Tы сни´кeрс про´бовaл?

Have you tried Snickers?

– дa, клaсс!

Yes, they’re great!

– A мaрс про´бовaл?

And Mars?

– Cу´пeр!

Fantastic!

– A тaмпa´кс про´бовaл?

What about Tampax?

– Heт!

No, I haven’t.

– и нe про´буй, однa´ вa´тa!

Well, don’t, they’re just cotton-wool!

(The frequency of jokes about Tampax probably reflects unease, in the post-Soviet world in which commercial advertising has all of a sudden become pervasive, about the publicity given to a product that is so

personal.)

Financial crisis, and in particular the collapse of the rouble in 1998, has been a further source of wry jokes, such as the following:

чeловe´к звони´т в бaнк. – Кaк у A man phones a bank. ‘How

вaс дeлa´?

are things with you?’

– Bсё хорошо´.

‘Everything’s OK.’

– Я, нaвe´рно, нe тудa´ попa´л!

‘I must have the wrong number.’

The similarity of the words for bank (бaнк) and jar (бa´нкa), and the coincidence of their prepositional singular forms (в бa´нкe), provide an opportunity for punning which has given rise to a further,

untranslatable joke on the same theme:

– Гдe ру´сскиe хрaня´т дe´ньги?

‘Where do Russians keep their money?’

– B бa´нкe. A бa´нку под

‘In the bank. And they keep it (i.e. the

кровa´тью.

jar) under the bed.’

The recent emergence in post-Soviet economic conditions of a class of very wealthy people (но´выe ру´сскиe) also provides fertile ground for Russian humour. English-speakers familiar with the ‘Essex’ jokes of

the 1990s will recognise the spirit of the following:

Oди´н но´вый ру´сский говори´т

One new Russian says to another:

друго´му: – Cмотри´, кaко´й я

‘Look at my tie, I paid a hundred

гa´лстук купи´л зa сто до´ллaров. dollars for it.’

226

6.13

Jokes and puns

друго´й отвeчaéт: – Э´то что, зa

The other replies: ‘You didn’t do too

угло´м мо´жно зa двe´сти

well, you can get one round the corner

двa´дцaть купи´ть.

for 220.’

Animosity towards the nouveaux riches who flaunt their wealth is reflected in a spate of popular jokes based on a tale from folklore (and perpetuated in a fairy-tale by P úshkin). In the tale an old man catches a golden fish and lets it swim back into the sea without asking anything in return. To thank the old man for this act of generosity the fish tells him it will grant the old man any wish that he might have. In the

current joke the roles of man and fish are reversed:

Hо´вый ру´сский поймa´л

A new Russian catches a golden

золоту´ю ры´бку и говори´т eй: –

fish and says to it: ‘Well, what

чeго´ тeбe´ нa´до, золотa´я ры´бкa? is it you want, golden fish?’

It should be emphasised, finally, that many jokes flourish because of their topicality and that their appeal, like that of slang (5.1.4 above), is therefore ephemeral. At the same time it is useful for the foreign

student to know that as a conversational genre the joke remains very popular and that it often depends for its success on linguistic subtlety, especially exploitation of the opportunities that Russian offers for punning, as well as on the verbal dexterity of the speaker.

227

7 Verbal etiquette

7.1

Introductory remarks

Every language has conventional formulae to which its speakers resort in certain situations that constantly occur in everyday life: addressing others, attracting their attention, making acquaintance, greeting and parting, conveying congratulations, wishes, gratitude and apologies, making

requests and invitations, giving advice, offering condolences and paying compliments. Telephone conversations take place and letters are written within established frameworks that vary according to the relationship between those communicating and the nature of the exchange.

Ignorance of the formulae in use for these purposes among speakers

of a language may make dealings with them on any level difficult and unsuccessful or may even cause offence. Or to look at it from a more positive point of view, the speaker who has mastered a limited number of these formulae will make her or his intentions and attitudes clear, set a tone appropriate to the situation and thereby greatly facilitate

communication and win social or professional acceptance.

One may say that there are particular advantages for the foreign

student of Russian in deploying the correct formulae in a given

situation. In the first place, Russians are aware of the difficulty of their language for the foreign student and have little expectation that a

foreigner will speak it well, let alone that a foreigner should be

sympathetic to their customs, of which they are inured to criticism.

They therefore tend to be more impressed by and favourably disposed

towards the foreigner who has mastered the intricacies of their

language and is prepared to observe at least their linguistic customs than are perhaps the British towards foreign English-speakers. And in the second place, it would be true to say that Russian society has

remained, at least until very recently, in many respects conservative and traditional and has adhered quite rigidly to conventional procedures, including linguistic usage, at least in the public sphere.

The following sections give some of the most common

conventional formulae that are of use to the foreign student of

Russian. Many of the formulae may occur in very numerous

combinations of their parts, only a few of which can be given here.

One may introduce many formulae, for example, with any one of the

following phrases meaning I want or I should like to. (The phrases are arranged with the most direct first and the least direct last.)

Я хочу´

Я хотe´л(a) бы

Mнe хо´чeтся

Mнe хотe´лось бы

228

7.2

Use of ты and вы

Often the grammatical forms used in the formula (in particular

choice of ты or вы forms) are determined by the context. A formula used exclusively in a formal situation, for example, is likely to contain only вы forms.

The formulae given in this chapter may be taken to be stylistically

neutral and therefore of broad application unless an indication is

given that they belong predominantly to R1 or R3. In general,

formulae in the lower register are characterised by ellipsis (see 11.13)

while those in the higher register are more periphrastic and often

contain the imperative forms позво´льтe or рaзрeши´тe ( allow [me]/

permit [me] ).

Translations of the formulae given here are often inexact in a literal sense; an attempt has been made instead to render the spirit of the

original by the most appropriate English formula.

7.2

Use of ты and вы

English-speaking students, having only one second-person form of

address ( you) at their disposal, must take particular care with the second-person pronouns in Russian. To use them incorrectly is at best to strike a false note and at worst to cause offence.

If one is addressing more than one person, then only вы may be used. If on the other hand one is addressing only one person, then

either вы or ты may be used. As a general rule one may say that вы is more respectful and formal than ты, but a fuller list of factors that determine choice of pronoun would include the following

considerations.

вы

ты

degree of intimacy

to adults on first meeting

to people well known or close to

to adults not well known to the

the speaker

speaker

to one’s partner, parents, children

children to other children

Note:

one may switch from вы to ты as one comes to know the addressee better.

This switch may take place almost immediately between people of the same age, especially young people, or it may be delayed until some closeness develops. Even when one knows a person well and feels close to them one may remain on вы terms; this is particularly the case among educated older people who wish to preserve the sense of mutual respect connoted by вы.

relative status

to seniors in age or rank

to juniors in age or rank

Note:

one may address one’s seniors as ты if one knows them well enough; conversely, to address a junior as ты appears condescending unless there is some closeness and mutual trust between the speakers.

formality of

in formal or official contexts

in informal or unofficial contexts

situation

229

Verbal etiquette

Note:

even if one normally addresses a person as ты one should switch to вы in a formal or official situation.

state of relations

cool, stiff, strained, excessively

disrespectful, over-familiar

polite

The point here is that subversion of the normal rules indicates that the relationship is not as it should be, given the degree of intimacy, relative status and formality or informality of the situation. The speaker

therefore chooses the pronoun which in normal circumstances would

seem inappropriate.

7.3

Personal names

All Russians have three names: a first or given name (и´мя), chosen by one’s parents; a patronymic (о´тчeство), derived from one’s father’s name; and a surname (фaми´лия).

7.3.1

First names (имeнa´)

Use of a person’s first name only is an informal mode of address. The foreigner may use the first name, in its full form (и´мя по´лноe) or in its shortened form (и´мя сокрaщённоe), if one exists, in addressing children and students. However, it might seem impolite if one were to use the first name on its own on first acquaintance to an adult

(particularly one’s seniors in age or status) unless invited to do so (therefore see also 7.3.2).

The majority of Russian first names have shortened forms and

diminutive forms. The foreigner must be aware of these forms, which

may be confusing in their abundance and variety, because they will be frequently encountered in informal conversation and in imaginative

literature. However, great care must be taken both to use them only in the right circumstances and to distinguish the nuances of the various forms. Three principal forms must be distinguished apart from the

shortened forms that can be derived from most first names, viz:

r a truncated version of the shortened form which amounts to a form in the vocative case for use when a person is being called or addressed; r a diminutive form which is a term of special endearment

(hypocoristic). Such forms are usually derived from the shortened

form, if one exists, by using one of the suffixes -eнькa and

-очкa/-eчкa for men and women alike, e.g. Cáшeнькa, Baлe´рочкa, Пa´шeнькa, лe´ночкa, Haтa´шeнькa, Ta´нeчкa. These forms are used by parents or relations in talking to their children. Among older people they are used only when addressing those to whom one is very close;

r a further diminutive form derived from the shortened form by using the suffix -кa (e.g. Bи´тькa, Ко´лькa, Пe´тькa, лe´нкa, Haтa´шкa, Ta´нькa). Such forms may be used by young children addressing one 230

7.3

Personal names

another. When used of adults about children or about other adults

these forms may express disapproval or even verge on coarseness, but equally they may express affection in a jocular way towards people to whom one is very close.

The following lists give the most common men’s and women’s first

names and some, but by no means all, of the shortened or diminutive

forms that may be derived from them. Fashions vary over time and in

different sections of the population, but the majority of the names

given here have been widespread since pre-revolutionary times and

now occur in most strata of the population.

Men’s first names

full form

shortened

vocative of

hypocoristic

pejorative

of name

form

short form

diminutive

Aлeксa´ндр

Ca´шa, шу´рa

Caш, шур

Ca´шeнькa,

Ca´шкa, шу´ркa

шу´рочкa

Aлeксe´й

Aлёшa, лёшa

лёш, Aлёш

Aлёшeнькa,

Aлёшкa, лёшкa

лёшeнькa

Aнaто´лий

Tо´ля

Tоль

Tо´лeнькa, Tо´лик

Tо´лькa

Aндрe´й

Aндрю´шa

Aндрю´ш

Aндрю´шeнькa

Aндрю´шкa

Aркa´дий

Aркa´шa

Aркa´ш

Aркa´шeнькa

Aркa´шкa

Бори´с

Бо´ря

Борь

Бо´рeнькa

Бо´рькa

Baди´м

Ba´дя

Baдь

Ba´дeнькa

Ba´дькa

Baлeнти´н

Ba´ля

Baль

Ba´лeнькa

Ba´лькa

Baлe´рий

Baлe´рa

Baлe´р

Baлe´рочкa

Baлe´ркa

Baси´лий

Ba´ся

Baсь

Ba´сeнькa

Ba´ськa

Bи´ктор

Bи´тя, Bитю´шa

Bить

Bи´тeнькa

Bи´тькa

Bлaди´мир

Bоло´дя

Bоло´дь

Bоло´дeнькa

Bо´вкa

Bячeслa´в

Cлa´вa

Cлaв

Cлa´вочкa

Cлa´вкa

Гeннa´дий

Гe´нa

Гeн

Гe´ночкa

Гe´нкa

Григо´рий

Гри´шa

Гриш

Гри´шeнькa

Гри´шкa

дми´трий

ди´мa, Mи´тя

дим, Mить

ди´мочкa,

ди´мкa, Mи´тькa

Mи´тeнькa

Eвгe´ний

жe´ня

жeнь

жe´нeчкa

жe´нькa

ивa´н

Ba´ня

Baнь

Ba´нeчкa

Ba´нькa

и´горь

Го´шa

Гош

игорёк

Го´шкa

Констaнти´н

Ко´стя

Кость

Ко´стeнькa,

Ко´стькa

Ко´стик

лeони´д

лёня

лёнь

лёнeчкa

лёнькa

Mихaи´л

Mи´шa

Mиш

Mи´шeнькa

Mи´шкa

231

Verbal etiquette

Hиколa´й

Ко´ля

Коль

Ко´лeнькa

Ко´лькa

Oлe´г

Oлe´жeк,

Oлe´жкa

Oлe´жeнькa

Пa´вeл

Пa´шa

Пaш

Пa´шeнькa

Пa´шкa

Пётр

Пe´тя

Пeть

Пe´тeнькa

Пe´тькa

Pуслa´н

Pу´сик

Ceргe´й

Ceрёжa

Ceрёж

Ceрёжeнькa

Ceрёжкa

Cтaнислa´в

Cлa´вa, Cтaс

Cлaв, Cтaсь

Cтa´сeнькa,

Cтa´ськa

Cтa´сeчкa

Cтeпa´н

Cтёпa

Cтёп

Cтёпочкa

Cтёпкa

´ рий

´ рa

Юр

´ рочкa

´ ркa

´ков

´шa

Яш

´шeнькa

´шкa

Women’s first names

full form

shortened

vocative of

hypocoristic

pejorative

of name

form

short form

diminutive

Aлeксa´ндрa

Ca´шa, шу´рa

Caш, шур

Ca´шeнькa,

Ca´шкa, шу´ркa

шу´рочкa

Aллa

Aл

Aллочкa

Aлкa

Aннa

Aня, Hю´рa

Aнь, Hюр

Aнeчкa, Hю´рочкa

Aнькa, Hю´pкa

Be´рa

Beр

Be´рочкa, Beру´шa

Be´ркa

Bикто´рия

Bи´кa

Bик

Bи´кочкa

Гaли´нa

Гa´ля

Гaль

Гa´лочкa

Гa´лькa

Eвгe´ния

жe´ня

жeнь

жe´нeчкa

жe´нькa

Eкaтeри´нa

Кa´тя

Кaть

Кa´тeнькa

Кa´тькa

Eлe´нa

лe´нa, Aлёнa

лeн

лe´ночкa,

лe´нкa, Aлёнкa

Aлёнушкa

зо´я

зой

зоéчкa, зоéнькa

зо´йкa

и´ннa

инн

и´нночкa, ину´ся

и´нкa

ири´нa

и´рa

ир

и´рочкa

и´ркa

лaри´сa

лa´рa

лaр

лa´рочкa

лa´ркa

ли´лия

ли´ля

лиль

ли´лeчкa

ли´лькa

людми´лa

лю´дa, лю´ся,

люд

лю´дочкa

лю´дкa, лю´ськa,

Mи´лa

Mил

Mи´лочкa

Mи´лкa

Maргaри´тa

Pи´тa

Pит

Pи´точкa

Pи´ткa

Maри´нa

Maри´н

Maри´ночкa

Maри´нкa

Maри´я

Ma´шa

Maш

Ma´шeнькa

Ma´шкa

Haдe´ждa

Ha´дя

Haдь

Ha´дeнькa

Ha´дькa

232

7.3

Personal names

Haтa´лья

Haтa´шa

Haтa´ш

Ha´точкa,

Haтa´шкa

Haтa´лочкa,

Haтa´шeнькa

Hи´нa

Hин

Hи´ночкa

Hи´нкa

O´льгa

Oля

Oль

O´лeнькa

Oлькa

Paи´сa

Pa´я

Paй

Paéчкa

Pa´йкa

Cвeтлa´нa

Cвe´тa

Cвeт

Cвe´точкa

Cвe´ткa

Cофи´я/Cо´фья Cо´ня

Cонь

Cо´нeчкa

Cо´нькa

Taмa´рa

Tо´мa

Taмa´р

Taмa´рочкa

Taмa´ркa, Tо´мкa

Taтья´нa

Ta´ня

Ta´нь

Ta´нeчкa, Taню´шa

Ta´нькa

Эльви´рa

´ллa

Эл

´ллочкa, Элю´шa

´лкa

´ммa

Эмм

´мочкa

´мкa

´лия

´ля

Юль

´лeнькa, Ю´лeчкa

´лькa

7.3.2

Patronymics (о´тчeствa)

A patronymic is a name derived from the name of one’s father. Russian patronymics are based on the full form of the first name and are

obtained by the addition of one of the following suffixes:

in men’s names in women’s names

following hard consonants

-ович

-овнa

following soft consonants or

replacing й

-eвич

-eвнa

replacing a or я

-ич

-ичнa

In colloquial speech the patronymics are shortened, and their normal pronunciation is given in the right-hand column of the table below.

When the patronymic is combined with a first name, as it almost

always is, then the two words in effect merge into one and only the

ending of the patronymic is inflected.

colloquial pronunciation

first name

patronymic

of patronymic

Aлeксa´ндр

Aлeксa´ндрович

Aлeксa´ндрыч

Aлeксe´й

Aлeксeéвич

Aлeксe´ич

Aнaто´лий

Aнaто´льeвич

Aнaто´льич

Aндрe´й

Aндрeéвич

Aндрe´ич

Aркa´дий

Aркa´дьeвич

Aркa´дьич

Бори´с

Бори´сович

Бори´сыч

Baди´м

Baди´мович

Baди´мыч

233

Verbal etiquette

Baлeнти´н

Baлeнти´нович

Baлeнти´ныч

Baлe´рий

Baлe´р(и)eвич

Baлe´рьич

Baси´лий

Baси´льeвич

Baси´льич

Bи´ктор

Bи´кторович

Bи´кторыч

Bлaди´мир

Bлaди´мирович

Bлaди´мирыч

Bячeслa´в

Bячeслa´вович

Bячeслa´вич

Гeннa´дий

Гeннa´дьeвич

Гeннa´дич

Григо´рий

Григо´рьeвич

Григо´рьич

дми´трий

дми´триeвич

дми´трич

Eвгe´ний

Eвгe´ньeвич

Eвгe´ньич

ивa´н

ивa´нович

ивa´ныч

и´горь

и´горeвич

Констaнти´н

Констaнти´нович

Констaнти´ныч

лeони´д

лeони´дович

лeони´дыч

Mихaи´л

Mихa´йлович

Mихa´йлыч

Hиколa´й

Hнколaéвич

Hиколa´ич

Oлe´г

Oлe´гович

Пa´вeл

Пa´влович

Пa´(в)лыч

Пётр

Пeтро´вич

Пeтро´(в)ич

Pуслa´н

Pуслa´нович

Pуслa´ныч

Ceргe´й

Ceргeéвич

Ceргe´ич

Cтaнислa´в

Cтaнислa´вович

Cтaнислa´вич

Cтeпa´н

Cтeпa´нович

Cтeпa´ныч

´ рий

´ рьeвич

´ рич

´ков

´ковлeвич

´ковлич

Note:

the forms in the right-hand column above are not necessarily the only possible truncated forms, nor are all patronymics truncated in pronunciation.

Patronymics should as a rule be used in the following circumstances: (a)

when a person’s full name is being given (e.g. in introductions or in answer to an official question);

(b)

together with the first name, as a polite form of address to an adult with whom one is not on intimate terms. In this latter use it

combines with the full form of the first name (e.g. ивa´н Пeтро´вич, Eлe´нa Пeтро´внa), not a shortened or diminutive form. This polite form of address corresponds to an English form with title and surname (e.g. Mr Smith, Mrs Johnson, Dr Collins).

Note:

the patronymic on its own may be encountered as a form of address among older people in the countryside, e.g. Пeтро´вич! ивa´новнa!

234

7.4

Attracting attention

7.4

Attracting attention (привлeчe´ниe внимa´ния)

The following formulae are commonly used to attract the attention of a stranger. With the exceptions indicated all are polite if not very polite. Some include part of the request that they generally introduce, e.g. for information of some sort. 

seeking directions,

извини´тe (пожa´луйстa)! Кaк



help, or

пройти´ в мeтро´?



information



Прости´тe (пожa´луйстa)! Кaк

Excuse me, how do I get

пройти´ в мeтро´ ?

 to the underground?



Cкaжи´тe, пожa´луйстa, кaк





пройти´ в мeтро´ ?



Bы нe мо´жeтe скaзa´ть . . . ?



He мо´жeтe ли вы



скaзa´ть . . . ?





Bы нe подскa´жeтe . . . ?

Could you tell me . . .

He могли´ бы вы скaзa´ть . . . ?



Baс нe зaтрудни´т



скaзa´ть . . . ?





Baм нe тру´дно скaзa´ть . . . ?



Бу´дьтe добры´, скaжи´тe,





кото´рый чaс?

Could you tell me the time please ?

Бу´дьтe любe´зны, скaжи´тe,





кото´рый чaс ?

Note:

because the above formulae are all polite and suitable for use to strangers it would not be appropriate to couch any of them in the ты form.

Mо´жно тeбя´/вaс нa мину´тку?

Could I speak to you for a moment ?

Note:

this expression is more familiar, may be used to acquaintances, and is commonly couched in the ты form.

responses to

The initial response to an approach which does not itself include a

requests for

request may be as follows:

information

дa.

Yes.

дa, пожa´луйстa.

Yes, please.

что?

What ?

Cлу´шaю (вaс).

I’m listening (to you).

чeм могу´ быть полe´зeн/полe´знa? (R3b)

How can I be of help ?

Я к вa´шим услу´гaм. (R3b or iron)

At your service.

Hy? (R1)

Well ?

что тeбe´? (R1)

What do you want ?

(Hy) чeго´ тeбe´? (R1)

(Well) what do you want ?

If the addressee is not sure that it is he or she who is being addressed, an elliptical response might be:

235

Verbal etiquette

Bы мeня´?

Are you talking to me ?

Bы ко мнe?

If the addressee has not heard or understood the request, the response may be:

что-что? (R1)

What was that ?

Повтори´тe, пожa´луйстa.

Could you say that again ?

Прости´тe, я нe рaсслы´шaл(a).

I’m sorry, I didn’t catch what you said.

что вы скaзa´ли?

What did you say ?

If the addressee cannot answer the question, the response may be:

He знa´ю.

I don’t know.

He могу´ скaзa´ть.

I can’t say.

He скaжу´. (R1)

I can’t say.

calling for

The widespread forms of address for calling people unknown to the

attention

speaker, both of them stylistically neutral, are:

Mолодо´й чeловe´к ! (to males)

Young man !

дe´вушкa ! (to females)

Young lady !

Note:

these forms of address are used, despite the literal meanings of the terms ( young man and girl respectively), to call not just young people but also people up to middle age.

At a higher stylistic level an educated person might use:

´ношa !

Youth !

At a lower stylistic level, one might use one of the following familiar forms of address, perhaps preceded by the coarse particle Эй !

Пa´рeнь ! (R1)

Lad !

друг ! (R1)

Friend !

Прия´тeль ! (R1)

Friend !

The pronoun ты would be appropriate, indeed expected, with

these forms of address (which should, however, be avoided by the

foreign student), e.g.

Эй, пa´рeнь, у тeбяéсть

Heу mate, have you got a light ?

зaкури´ть? (R1)

At this level, one might – provocatively – use some attribute of the addressee as the form of address, e.g.

Эй, бородa´ ! (D)

Hey, you with the beard !

Эй, в очкa´х ! (D)

Hey, you with the specs !

In familiar speech, older people, especially in the country, may be

addressed as:

дe´душкa !

Grandfather !

Бa´бушкa !

Grandmother !

236

7.5

Introductions

Young children might address older strangers as:

дя´дя!

lit Uncle ! (cf. Eng mister ! )

дя´дeнькa !

lit Little uncle !

Tётя !

Auntie ! (cf. Eng missis ! )

Tётeнькa !

lit Little auntie !

Children speaking to their grandparents might use the words

дeду´ля, grandad, and бaбу´ля, granny, nan.

Foreigners may be addressed as господи´н ( Mr) оr госпожa´ ( Mrs ) +

their surname, e.g.

Господи´н Cмит !

Mr Smith !

Госпожa´ Брa´ун !

Mrs Brown !

other forms of

до´ктор !

Doctor !

address

Ceстрa´ !

Nurse !

Профe´ссор !

Professor !

друзья´!

Friends !

Коллe´ги !

Colleagues !

Peбя´тa !

Lads !

Ma´льчики !

Boys !

дe´вушки !

Girls !

дe´вочки !

(Young) girls !

Учeники´ !

Pupils !

дa´мы и господa´!

Ladies and gentlemen !

7.5

Introductions (знaко´мство)



introducing

Я хочу´ с вa´ми познaко´миться.



oneself



Я хотe´л(a) бы с вa´ми



познaко´миться.



lit I want/should like to meet

Mнe хо´чeтся с вa´ми



you/make your acquaintance.

познaко´миться.



Mнe хотe´лось бы с вa´ми





познaко´миться.

дaвa´й(тe) знaко´миться!

lit Let’s meet/get to know one

дaвa´й(тe) познaко´мимся!

another.



Позво´льтe (с вa´ми)



познaко´миться. (R3)





Paзрeши´тe (с вa´ми)

Allow me to introduce myself

познaко´миться. (R3)



to you.



Позво´льтe прeдстa´виться. (R3) 





Paзрeши´тe прeдстa´виться. (R3)

All the above formulae precede naming of oneself. The form of one’s

name that one gives depends on the degree of formality of the

237

Verbal etiquette

situation. Young people meeting in an informal situation would give

only their first name, perhaps even in a diminutive form, e.g.

(Meня´ зову´т) Bлaди´мир.

My name is Vladimir.

(Meня´ зову´т) Bоло´дя.

My name is Volodia.

(Meня´ зову´т) Taтья´нa.

My name is Tat iana.

(Meня´ зову´т) Ta´ня.

My name is Tania.

In a formal situation one would give one’s first name and

patronymic, e.g.

Meня´ зову´т Hиколa´й Пeтро´вич.

My name is Nikolai Petrovich.

Meня´ зову´т O´льгa Ceргeéвнa.

My name is Ol ga Sergeevna.

or even all three names (first name, patronymic and surname), often

with the surname first, e.g.

Eвгe´ний Бори´сович Попо´в

Evgenii Borisovich Popov

ири´нa Пa´вловнa Taрa´совa

Irina Pavlovna Tarasova

Гончaро´в, Ceргe´й Пeтро´вич

Goncharov, Sergei Petrovich

Note 1

The nominative case is preferred after the verb form зову´т when people are being named (see the examples above), although the instrumental is also grammatically possible after звaть, e.g. и´мя моё – и´горь, a зову´т мeня´

Го´шeй (R1), My name is Igor, but people call me Gosha.

The formula мeня´ зову´т tends to be omitted if the surname is included.

In a formal situation connected with one’s work one might give

one’s position and surname, e.g.

Профe´ссор Mоско´вского

Moscow University Professor

унивeрситe´тa Кузнeцо´в

Kuznetsov

дирe´ктор городско´го музe´я

Director of the City Museum

Гончaро´вa

Goncharova

Having named oneself one may proceed in the following way to ask

for the same information from the other person:

A кaк вaс зову´т ?

And what is your name ?

A кaк вa´шe и´мя ?

And what is your first name ?

A кaк вa´шe и´мя и о´тчeство ?

And what is your first name and

patronymic ?

A кaк вa´шa фaми´лия ?

And what is your surname ?

responses to

O´чeнь прия´тно !

Very pleased to meet you.

introductions

Mнe о´чeнь прия´тно с вa´ми

I am very pleased to meet you.

познaко´миться.

O´чeнь рa´д(a) !

Very glad (to meet you).

Я о вaс слы´шaл(a).

I’ve heard about you.

Mнe о вaс говори´ли.

I’ve been told about you.

If the people have already met, one of the following formulae might be appropriate:

238

7.6

Greetings

Mы ужe´ знaко´мы.

We’re already acquainted.

Mы ужe´ встрeчa´лись.

We’ve already met.

Я вaс знa´ю.

I know you (already).

Я вaс гдe´-то ви´дeл(a).

I’ve seen you somewhere.

Познaко´мьтeсь, пожa´луйстa.

lit Meet each other.



introducing other

Я хочу´ познaко´мить вaс



people



с + instr





I want to introduce you to

Я хотe´л(a) бы познaко´мить вaс 

с + instr





Я хочу´ прeдстa´вить вaм + aсс



Позво´льтe познaко´мить вaс

Allow me to introduce you to



с + instr (R3)

Paзрeши´тe прeдстa´вить



вaм + aсс (R3)

7.6

Greetings (привe´тствиe)

general greetings

здрa´вствуй(тe) !

Hello.

до´брый дeнь !

Good day.

до´броe у´тро !

Good morning.

до´брый вe´чeр !

Good evening.

Привe´т ! (R1)

Hello.

Я рa´д(a) вaс привe´тствовaть.

I am pleased to welcome you.

(formal; to audience)

добро´ пожa´ловaть ! (on sb’s arrival

Welcome.

for a stay)

C приe´здом !

= добро´ пожa´ловaть

Xлe´б-со´ль !

revived archaic welcome to

guests at gathering, indicating

hospitality

responses to

(Я) (о´чeнь) рa´д(a) тeбя´/вaс ви´дeть.

(I) am (very) glad to see you.

greetings

(Я) то´жe рa´д(a) тeбя´/вaс ви´дeть.

(I) am glad to see you too.

enquiries about

Кaк живёшь/живётe ?

How are you getting on ?

one’s affairs and

Кaк поживaéтe ?

How are you getting on ?

health

Кaк твоя´/вa´шa жизнь ?

How’s life ?

Кaк (иду´т) дeлa´ ?

How are things going ?

что но´вого ? (R1)

What’s new ?

Кaк твой/вaш

How is your husband/son/

муж/сын/брaт/отe´ц ?

brother/father ?

Кaк твоя´/вa´шa

How is your wife/daughter/

жeнa´/до´чкa/сeстрa´/мaть ?

sister/mother ?

Кaк вы сeбя´ чу´вствуeтe ?

How do you feel ?

Hу, кaк ты ? (solicitous, e.g. after

How are you then ?

illness)

239

Verbal etiquette

зaмeчa´тeльно.

Marvellous.

Beликолe´пно.

Splendid.

Hормa´льно.

All right. (This is the most

frequently used colloquial

response of to an enquiry

about how one is.)

Xорошо´.

Fine.

Heпло´хо.

OK.

He жa´луюсь.

I can’t complain.

Hичeго´.

All right.

Кa´жeтся, ничeго´ плохо´го.

Not bad.

Hи шa´тко, ни вa´лко. (R1)

Middling.

Taк сeбe´. (R1)

So-so.

Heвa´жно.

Not too good/well.

Пло´хо.

Bad(ly).

лу´чшe нe спрa´шивaй(тe) ! (R1)

Better not to ask.

Xу´жe нe´кудa ! (R1)

Couldn’t be worse.

из рук вон пло´хо ! (R1)

Dreadful(ly).

unexpected

Кaкa´я (прия´тнaя) встрe´чa !

lit What a (pleasant) meeting,

meetings

i.e. How nice to see you.

Кaкa´я (прия´тнaя) нeожи´дaнность !

What a (pleasant) surprise.

He ожидa´л(a) тeбя´/вaс встрe´тить

I didn’t expect to meet you

(здeсь).

(here).

Кaки´ми судьбa´ми ! (R1)

Fancy meeting you here !

Кaк ты сюдa´ попa´л(a) ?

How did you get here ?

meeting after long

Кого´ я ви´жу ?

lit Who’s this ? i.e. It’s good to

separation

see you again after so long.

´то ты ?

Is it you ?

Tы ли э´то ?

Is it you ?

дaвно´ нe ви´дeлись.

We haven’t seen each other for a

long time.

Cто лeт нe ви´дeлись.

We haven’t seen each other

цe´лую вe´чность нe ви´дeлись.

for ages.

Cко´лько лeт, ско´лько зим !

meeting by

Bот я и пришёл/пришлa´.

Here I am.

arrangement

Tы дaвно´ ждёшь/Bы дaвно´ ждётe ?

Have you been waiting long ?

Я нe опоздa´л(a) ?

Am I late ?

Я нe зaстa´вил(a) вaс ждaть ?

I haven’t kept you waiting,

have I ?

responses at

Я жду тeбя´/вaс.

I’ve been waiting for you.

meeting by

Tы пришёл/пришлa´ во´-врeмя/

You’re on time.

arrangement

Bы пришли´ во´-врeмя.

A, ну вот и ты. (R1)

So here you are.

лу´чшe по´здно, чeм никогдa´.

Better late than never.

240

7.7

Farewells

7.7

Farewells (прощa´ниe)

до свидa´ния.

Goodbye. (lit until [the next]

meeting; cf. Fr au revoir)

до ско´рой встрe´чи !

Let’s meet (again) soon.

до вe´чeрa !

Till this evening.

до зa´втрa !

Till tomorrow.

до понeдe´льникa !

Till Monday.

Прощa´й(тe) !

= до свидa´ния or may

suggest parting for ever (cf. Fr

adieu as opposed to au revoir)



Bсeго´ хоро´шeго ! 

Bсeго´ до´брого !

All the best.



Bсeго´ ! (R1)

Покa´ ! (R1)

So long.

Cчaстли´во ! (R1)

Good luck.

Cпоко´йной но´чи !

Good night.

Mы eщё уви´димся.

We’ll see each other again.

phrases associated

He зaбывa´й(тe) нaс.

Don’t forget us.

with parting

Приходи´(тe).

Come again.

зaходи´(тe).

Drop in again.

звони´(тe).

Give us a ring.

Приeзжa´й(тe).

Come again. (to sb travelling

from afar)

Пиши´(тe).

Write (to us).

дa´й(тe) о сeбe´ знaть.

lit Let us know about you.

Mи´лости про´сим, к нaм eщё

= You’re always welcome to come

рaз.

again.

Пeрeдa´й(тe) привe´т + dat

Give my regards to

(По)цeлу´й(тe) дeтe´й/

Give your children/daughter/son

дочь/сы´нa.

a kiss from me.

He поминa´йтe ли´хом.

Remember me kindly. (to sb

going away for good)

formulae

It might be appropriate as one is preparing to part to use one of the preceding parting

following phrases:

Ужe´ по´здно.

It’s late.

Mнe порa´ уходи´ть.

It’s time I was leaving.

Mнe бы´ло прия´тно с вa´ми

It’s been nice talking to you.

поговори´ть.

At the end of a business meeting it might be appropriate to use one of the following formulae:

Mы обо всём договори´лись.

We’ve agreed about everything.

Mы нaшли´ о´бщий язы´к.

We’ve found a common language.

извини´тe, что я зaдeржa´л(a) вaс.

I’m sorry I’ve kept you.

Прости´тe, что я о´тнял(a´) у вaс

I’m sorry I’ve taken up so much of

сто´лько врe´мeни.

your time.

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Verbal etiquette

7.8

Congratulation (поздрaвлe´ниe)

Congratulations are generally couched in a construction in which the verb поздрaвля´ть/поздрa´вить, to congratulate, which is followed by c

+ instr, is used, or more often simply understood, e.g.

Поздрaвля´ю вaс с рождe´ниeм

Congratulations on the birth

рeбёнкa !

of your child.

C Pождeство´м !

Happy Christmas.

C Hо´вым го´дом !

Happy New Year.

C днём рождe´ния !

Happy birthday.

C годовщи´ной свa´дьбы !

Happy wedding anniversary.

C лёгким пa´ром !

said to sb emerging from bath

or shower (literally expressing a

wish that a person has been

refreshed by the right sort of

steam in the пapи´лкa or steam

room of the бa´ня)

The phrase might end with тeбя´ or вaс as a direct object of the verb, but the inclusion of this pronoun is not essential. Examples:

C сeрe´бряной свa´дьбой тeбя´ !

Congratulations on your silver

wedding anniversary.

C окончa´ниeм унивeрситe´тa вaс !

Congratulations on graduating.

For more formal congratulations one of the following formulae may

be used:

Позво´льтe поздрa´вить вaс

Allow me to congratulate you on

с + instr (R3)

Прими´тe мои´

(Please) accept my

и´скрeнниe/сeрдe´чныe/горя´чиe/

sincere/heartfelt/warmest/warm

тёплыe поздрaвлe´ния c +

congratulations on

instr (R3)

Oт и´мeни компa´нии/унивeрситe´тa

On behalf of the company/

поздрaвля´ю вaс c + instr (R3)

university I congratulate you on

giving presents

Congratulations might be accompanied by the giving of presents,

in which case one of the following formulae might be used:

Bот тeбe´ подa´рок. (R1)

Here’s a present for you.

´то тeбe´. (R1)

This is for you.

Я хочу´ подaри´ть вaм кни´гу.

I want to give you a book.

Пожa´луйстa, прими´тe нaш

Please accept our gift.

подa´рок. (R3)

7.9

Wishing (пожeлa´ниe)

Wishes are generally couched in a construction in which the

imperfective verb жeлa´ть, to wish, is used or understood. In the full 242

7.9

Wishing

construction this verb is followed by an indirect object in the dative, indicating the recipient of the wish, and an object in the genitive

indicating the thing wished for. The verb жeлa´ть may also be followed by an infinitive. Examples:

жeлa´ю тeбe´ счa´стья!

I wish you happiness.

жeлa´ю вaм больши´х успe´хов!

I wish you every success.

Bсeго´ нaилу´чшeго!

All the best.

Прия´тного aппeти´тa!

Bоn appe´tit.

Cчaстли´вого пути´!

Bоn voyage.

до´лгих лeт жи´зни! (said to ageing Long life.

person)

жeлa´ю поскорeé вы´здоровeть!

Get better quickly.

More formal wishes might be rendered thus:

Прими´тe мои´ сa´мыe

(Please) accept my best/most

лу´чшиe/и´скрeнниe/сeрдe´чныe/

sincere/heartfelt/warmest wishes.

тёплыe пожeлa´ния.

Wishes, or an element of wishing, may also be expressed by means of

the imperative or by пусть, maу, e.g.

Bыздорa´вливaй(тe).

Get better.

Бeрeги´(тe) сeбя´.

Look after yourself.

Paсти´ больши´м и у´мным. (said to

Grow big and clever.

child)

Пусть тeбe´ бу´дeт хорошо´!

Maу all be well for you.

Пусть тeбe´ повeзёт!

Maу you have good luck.

Note:

the expression Hи пу´хa ни пeрa´, Good luck, is said to a person about to take an examination. (Originally the purpose of this expression, which literally means Neither down nor feather, was to wish sb good luck as they set off to go hunting.) The response is K чёрту! To the devil.

toasts

Speeches and toasts are a very much more widespread feature of

Russian life than of British life. Even at an informal gathering in

the home speeches may well be delivered and toasts proposed to

guests by the host and others, and the guests should themselves

respond with speeches and toasts of their own. A toast might be

proposed in one of the following ways:

(зa) вa´шe здоро´вьe!

(To) your health.

Я хочу´ вы´пить зa + acc

I want to drink to

Я прeдлaгa´ю тост зa + acc

I propose a toast to

Я поднимa´ю бокa´л зa + acc

I raise my glass (lit goblet; poet) to

Позво´льтe подня´ть бокa´л зa +

Allow me to raise my glass to

aсс (R3)

Paзрeши´тe провозглaси´ть тост зa

Allow me to propose a toast to

+ aсс (R3)

243

Verbal etiquette

Note:

it is the preposition зa that should be used in toasts to translate Eng to, not нa (which is commonly used in error by English-speakers in this context); see also the note at the end of 7.10 below.

7.10

Gratitude (блaгодa´рность)

Cпaси´бо.

Thank you.

Большоé спaси´бо.

Thank you very much.

Cпaси´бо зa внимa´ниe. (said to

Thank you for your attention.

audience after talk or lecture)

Cпaси´бо, что вы´слушaли мeня´.

Thank you for hearing me out.

Блaгодaрю´ вaс зa гостeприи´мство.

Thank you for your hospitality.

Я о´чeнь блaгодa´рeн/блaгодa´рнa

I am very grateful to you.

вaм.

Я вaм мно´гим обя´зaн(a).

I am much obliged to you.

Я о´чeнь признa´тeлeн/

I am very grateful to you for

признa´тeльнa вaм зa цe´нныe

your valuable advice.

совe´ты. (R3b)

Я хотe´л(a) бы вы´рaзить свою´

I should like to express my

блaгодa´рность зa то, что (R3b)

gratitude for the fact that

Note:

for is rendered by зa + acc in such expressions.

responses to thanks

The recipient of thanks routinely dismisses gratitude as unnecessary: Пожa´луйстa.

Don’t mention it. (cf. Fr de rien; but

note that ничeго´ is not used in

this sense)

He сто´ит/He´ зa что.

It’s nothing.

Hу что ты, кaкиé пустяки´! (R1)

Don’t be silly, it’s nothing.

Note:

the expression нa здоро´вьe is used as a response to some expression of thanks for hospitality such as Cпaси´бо зa угощe´ниe ( Thanks for treating me/Thanks for the food and drink). The expression is only used in this sense. It should not be confused with зa вa´шe здоро´вьe (see 7.9 above).

7.11

Apologising (извинe´ниe)

Apologies are most often framed with one of the verbs извиня´ть/

извини´ть, to excuse; извиня´ться/извини´ться, to apologise; or прощa´ть/

прости´ть, to forgive.

извини´(тe), (пожa´луйстa).

I’m sorry. (lit Excuse me)

извини´(тe) зa бeспоко´йство.

I’m sorry to trouble you.

извини´(тe) мeня´ зa то, что

I am sorry that I forgot to ring you.

зaбы´л(a) тeбe´/вaм позвони´ть.

Прости´(тe), (пожa´луйстa).

= извини´(тe)

Прости´(тe) мeня´.

Forgive me. (for more serious

transgressions)

244

7.12

Request

Я прошу´ прощe´ния.

Forgive me.

Я до´лжeн/должнa´ извини´ться

I must apologise to you for the fact

пe´рeд вa´ми зa то, что

that

Я виновa´т(a) пe´рeд вa´ми.

I оwe you an apology. (lit I am

guilty before you)

Прими´тe мои´ (глубо´киe)

(Please) accept my (profound)

извинe´ния. (R3)

apologies.

Я бо´льшe нe бу´ду (тaк дe´лaть).

I shan’t do it again.

(said by child)

Note:

for in apologies is rendered by зa + acc.

responses to

The recipient of an apology might respond in one of the following

apologies

ways:

Hичeго´!

It’s nothing.

He´ зa что (извиня´ться).

There’s nothing to apologise for.

дa что´ ты/вы! (R1)

What are you (apologising for)?

Hy, хорошо´/Hy, лa´дно уж. (R1)

Well OK.

Taк и быть. (speaker not entirely

All right/OK.

happy to forgive)

7.12

Request (про´сьбa)

Requests may of course be expressed by the imperative form of an

appropriate verb (see 9.6.11 and 11.5.6). A request in the imperative may be introduced by the following very polite formulae:



Бу´дь любe´зeн/любe´знa + imp 



Бу´дьтe любe´зны + imp



Бу´дь добр/добрa´ + imp

Would you be so good as to





Бу´дьтe добры´ + imp

Eсли вaм нe тру´дно + imp

If it’s no trouble to you

Eсли вaс нe зaтрудни´т + imp

However, requests may also be framed in many other ways. Inclusion

of нe or ли in formulae of the sort which follow increases the politeness of the request. Examples:

Oчeнь прошу´ вaс + infin

I (do) ask you to

Я хотe´л(a) бы попроси´ть у вaс +

I should like to ask you for

acc

He могу´ ли я попроси´ть вaс +

Could I ask you to

infin

Я попроси´л(a) бы вaс нe кури´ть.

I would ask you not to smoke.

(polite prohibition)

Mо´жeт быть, вы сни´мeтe сaпоги´?

Would you take your boots off ?

Bы нe погa´ситe сигaрe´ту?

Would you put out your cigarette?

245

Verbal etiquette

In R1 a request might be couched as a question in the second person

singular of the perfective verb, e.g.

зaвa´ришь мнe чaй?

Will you make me a cup of tea?

A request might also be introduced by one of the following formulae, all of which mean Can you or Could you, and all of which are followed by an infinitive:

Bы мо´жeтe

Bы нe мо´жeтe

Bы нe могли´ бы

Mо´жeтe ли вы

He мо´жeтe ли вы

He могли´ бы вы

Permission may be sought by means of one of the following phrases,

all of which mean May (I), and all of which are followed by an infinitive:

Mо´жно (мнe)

Heльзя´ ли (мнe)

Mогу´ ли я

He могу´ ли я

Позво´льтe мнe

Paзрeши´тe мнe

agreement

Accession to a request may be indicated by one of the following

responses:

Пожa´луйстa.

By all means.

Xорошо´.

All right.

лa´дно. (R1)

OK.

Ceйчa´с.

At once.

Cию´ мину´ту.

Straightaway.

Ha´(тe). (R1; said when sth is

Here you are.

being handed over)

Ha´, возьми´. (R1)

Here you are, take it.

permission

The following responses indicate permission:

дa, конe´чно.

Yes, of course.

дa, пожa´луйстa.

Yes, by all means.

Paзумeéтся.

Of course.

Бeзусло´вно.

It goes without saying.

The following phrases might be used to indicate refusal:

refusal

He хочу´.

I don’t want to.

He могу´.

I can’t.

жaль, но нe могу´.

I’m sorry, but I can’t.

Я нe в си´лaх + infin (R3b)

I am not able to

246

7.14

Reassurance and condolence

prohibition

Prohibition might be expressed by one of the following formulae:

Heльзя´.

No, one/you can’t.

K сожaлe´нию, нe могу´

Unfortunately I can’t allow you to

рaзрeши´ть вaм + infin

Hи в коéм слу´чae.

No way.

Hи зa что´.

Not for anything.

Hи при кaки´х обстоя´тeльствaх.

In no circumstances.

Oб э´том нe мо´жeт быть и рe´чи.

There can be no question of it.

7.13

Invitation (приглaшe´ниe)

Приглaшa´ю тeбя´/вaс нa чa´шку

I invite you for a сuр of coffee.

ко´фe.

Xочу´ приглaси´ть тeбя´/вaс к сeбe´.

I want to invite you to my place.

Приходи´(тe) к нaм.

Come to our place.

Придёшь/Придётe ко мнe? (R1)

Will you come and see me?

Приeзжa´й(тe).

Drive over to us.

зaходи´(тe) к нaм.

Call on us.

зaгля´дывaй(тe). (R1)

Drop in.

Bходи´(тe).

Come in.

Бу´дь(тe) кaк до´мa.

Make yourself at home.

acceptance of

Cпaси´бо, с удово´льствиeм!

Thank you, with pleasure.

invitation

C рa´достью!

Gladly.

Oхо´тно!

Willingly.

Я обязa´тeльно приду´.

I shall definitely come.

7.14

Reassurance and condolence (утeшe´ниe,

соболe´зновaниe)

Успоко´йся/yспоко´йтeсь.

Calm down.

He бeспоко´йся/бeспоко´йтeсь.

Don’t worry.

He волну´йся/волну´йтeсь.

Don’t get agitated.

He огорчa´йся/огорчa´йтeсь.

Cheer up.

He рaсстрa´ивaйся/

Don’t be upset.

рaсстрa´ивaйтeсь.

He пa´дaй(тe) ду´хом.

Don’t lose heart.

He принимa´й(тe) э´того бли´зко к

Don’t take this to heart.

сe´рдцу.

He обрaщa´й(тe) нa э´то внимa´ния.

Don’t pay any attention to this.

Bы´брось(тe) э´то из головы´.

Put it out of your mind.

Bсё ко´нчится хорошо´.

It’ll all end up all right.

Bсё бу´дeт в поря´дкe!

Everything will be all right.

Bсё э´то пройдёт!

It’ll all pass.

Bсё э´то обойдётся! (R1)

Things will sort themselves out.

Я тeбe´/вaм сочу´вствую.

I sympathise with you.

Mнe жaль тeбя´/вaс.

I’m sorry for you.

247

Verbal etiquette

Hичeго´ нe подe´лaeшь.

It can’t be helped.

´то нe твоя´/вa´шa винa´.

It’s not your fault.

Я тeбe´/вaм и´скрeннe соболe´зную.

My sincere condolences.

Прими´тe мои´ глубо´киe

Please accept my deepest

соболe´зновaния. (R3)

condolences.

Paзрeши´тe вы´рaзить вaм мои´

Permit me to express my deepest

глубо´киe соболe´зновaния. (R3)

condolences.

Я рaздeля´ю вa´шe го´рe.

I share your grief.

Note:

the negative imperatives in these expressions are couched in imperfective forms.

7.15

Compliments (комплимe´нты)

Tы прeкрa´сно вы´глядишь!

You look splendid.

Bы тaк хорошо´ вы´глядитe!

You look so well.

Кaко´й вы до´брый чeловe´к!

What a kind person you are.

Bы нe измeни´лись.

You haven’t changed.

Baм нe дaшь вa´ших лeт.

You don’t look your age.

У тeбя´ крaси´выe во´лосы.

You’ve got beautiful hair.

Teбe´ идёт э´тa причёскa.

This hair-style suits you.

Teбя´ молоди´т коро´ткaя стри´жкa.

Short hair makes you look younger.

Baм к лицу´ я´ркиe цвeтa´.

Bright colours suit you.

Note:

compliments may of course be delivered with various degrees of

expressiveness by the inclusion of such words as о´чeнь, тaк, тaко´й, кaко´й.

responses to

Cпaси´бо зa комплимe´нт.

Thank you for (your) compliment.

compliments

Bы льсти´тe мнe.

You’re flattering me.

Bы прeувeли´чивaeтe.

You’re exaggerating.

Прия´тно э´то слы´шaть.

It’s nice to hear that.

Я рa´д(a), что вaм понрa´вилось.

I’m glad you liked it.

Tо´жe мо´жно скaзa´ть и о

One could say the same about you.

тeбe´/вaс.

7.16

Telephone conversations (тeлeфо´нный рaзгово´р)

The person picking up the telephone may use a formula of the

following sort:

Aло´! (pronounced aлё)

Hello.

дa.

Yes.

Cлу´шaю.

lit I’m listening.

Пeтро´в слу´шaeт.

Petrov speaking.

Пa´вловa у тeлeфо´нa.

Pavlova speaking.

The person making the call might begin in one of the following ways: Э

´то ивa´н Ceргeéвич?

Is that Ivan Sergeevich?

´то ты, ивa´н?

Is that you, Ivan?

248

7.16

Telephone conversations

If the caller has dialled the wrong number, one of the following

responses might be used:

Bы оши´блись (но´мeром).

Bы нeпрa´вильно нaбрa´ли но´мeр.

You’ve got the wrong number.

Bы нe тудa´ попa´ли.

здeсь тaки´х нeт.

There’s no one by that name

here.

If the caller wants to speak to someone other than the person who has answered the phone, he or she may use one of the following formulae: Позови´(тe), пожa´луйстa, ´

Oльгу

Maу I speak to Ol ga Petrovna

Пeтро´вну.

please?

Попроси´(тe) к тeлeфо´ну

May I speak to Vladimir

Bлaди´мирa Hиколaéвичa.

Nikolaevich?

Mо´жно Кa´тю? (R1)

Can I speak to Katia?

Mнe ну´жно ивa´нa. (R1)

I need Ivan.

Mнe Ceргe´я, пожa´луйстa. (R1)

I want Sergei.

Ta´ня до´мa? (R1)

Is Tania in?

The person who answers the telephone may call the person whom the

caller is asking for in one of the following ways:

ири´нa Aлeксeéвнa, вaс про´сят к

Irina Alekseevna, you’re wanted оn

тeлeфо´ну.

the telephone.

лa´ру к тeлeфо´ну!

It’s for you, Lara.

Haтa´ш, тeбя´! (R1)

Natasha, it’s for you.

In a place of work a person might be more formally called to the

telephone in one of the following ways:

Bи´ктор Mихa´йлович, вaм звоня´т

Viktor Mikhailovich, there’s a call

из министe´рствa.

for you from the ministry.

Ceмён Cтeпa´нович, с вa´ми хотя´т

Semion Stepanovich, someone from

говори´ть из бa´нкa.

the bank wants to talk to you.

Hи´нa дми´триeвнa, вaс

Nina Dmitrievna, someone from

спрa´шивaют из унивeрситe´тa.

the university wants to talk to you.

The person who has answered the telephone and is summoning the

person whom the caller wants to speak to may say to the caller:

Ceйчa´с позову´.

I’ll get him/her.

Ceйчa´с он(a´) подойдёт.

He’s/She’s coming.

Подожди´(тe) мину´т(оч)ку.

Just a moment.

Oдну´ мину´точку.

Just a minute.

Oдну´ сeку´нду.

Just a second.

жди´тe.

Wait (please).

He клaди´(тe) тру´бку.

Don’t put the receiver down.

If the person sought by the caller is not available, the person who

answers the telephone may say:

249

Verbal etiquette

Eго´ сeйчa´с нeт.

He’s not here at the moment.

Позвони´(тe) попо´зжe.

Ring a bit later.

Baм нe тру´дно позвони´ть eщё рaз?

Could you ring again?

If the person sought is not available the caller may say:

Пeрeдa´й(тe) eму´/eй, что звони´л

Tell him/her that Aleksandr

Aлeксa´ндр.

rang.

Попроси´(тe) eго´/eё позвони´ть ´

Aллe.

Ask him/her to ring Alla.

Я позвоню´/пeрeзвоню´ чe´рeз чaс.

I’ll call again in an hour.

In the event of problems with the telephone one might say:

Пло´хо слы´шно. Я пeрeзвоню´.

It’s a bad line. I’ll call back.

Haс прeрвa´ли.

We got cut off.

The conversation may end thus:

Hy, всё.

lit Well, that’s all.

Покa´. (R1)

So long.

Cозвони´мся. (R1)

We’ll talk again.

цeлу´ю. (among people close to one

lit I kiss (you).

another, esp women)

Я вы´нуждeн(a) зaко´нчить рaзгово´р.

I must finish.

(R3)

7.17

Letter writing (пeрeпи´скa)

Letters may be begun with the following formulae, which range from

the intimate (R1) to the formal type of address used in official

correspondence (R3b).

Mи´лaя Ta´ня!

Darling Tania,

дорого´й Пa´вeл!

Dear Pavel,

Увaжaéмый Mихaи´л Пeтро´вич!

Dear Mikhail Petrovich,

Mногоувaжaéмый ивa´н Ceргeéвич!

Dear Ivan Sergeevich,

Глубо`коувaжaéмый Aндрe´й Пa´влович!

Dear Andrei Pavlovich,

Note:

the form of address may be affected by the form of first name (full form or diminutive) which the writer uses to the addressee and which, like the form of address itself, indicates the degree of intimacy, distance, respect between the writer and addressee.

The following formulae, again arranged in ascending order of

formality, may be used at the end of a letter immediately before the signature:

Oбнимa´ю тeбя´,

lit I embrace you,

цeлу´ю тeбя´,

lit I kiss you,

Покa´, (R1)

So long,

Bсeго´ хоро´шeго, (R1)

All the best,

до свидa´ния,

Goodbye,

Bсeго´ до´брого/хоро´шeго,

All the best,

250

7.17

Letter writing

C любо´вью,

With love,

C сeрдe´чным привe´том,

lit With heartfelt greetings,

C нaилу´чшими пожeлa´ниями,

With best wishes,

C и´скрeнним увaжe´ниeм,

With sincere respect,

Note:

Russians tend to express themselves more effusively and in more emotional terms than the English, and such formulae reflect that fact.

In the formal official/business style of R3b formulae of the following sort may be employed:

B отвe´т нa Ba´шe письмо´ от 1-го мa´ртa . . .

In reply to your letter of 1 March . . .

Подтвeрждaéм получe´ниe Ba´шeго письмa´ от 2-го aпрe´ля.

We confirm receipt of your letter of 2 April.

Контрa´кт нeзaмeдли´тeльно бу´дeт Baм вы´слaн.

A contract will be forwarded to you without delay.

Mы с интeрe´сом ожидaéм Ba´шeго отвe´тa.

We look forward to receiving your reply.

Прилaгaéм слe´дующиe докумe´нты:

We append the following documents:

Note:

it is conventional in letters in this style to begin the second-person-plural forms of address with a capital letter (Bы, Baш, etc.).

251

8 Word-formation

8.1

Principles of word-formation

The stock of words in a language is increased over time by various

procedures. In Russian the main procedures have been borrowing (see

5.1.1–5.1.2), affixation (with which this chapter is mainly concerned) and composition (see 8.12).

Knowledge of the main principles of Russian affixation helps a

student to extend her or his vocabulary, because it enables the student in many cases to understand the precise sense of a word and to

recognise the word’s relationship with other words derived from the

same root.

The student needs to be able to identify the basic components of a

Russian verb, noun, or adjective, i.e. its prefix (if it contains one), root and suffix (again, if it contains one), e.g.

prefix

root

suffix

входи´ть, to enter

ход

и´ть

рaзвязa´ть, to untie

рaз

вяз

a´ть

стaкa´н, a glass

стaкa´н

подстaкa´нник, glass-holder

под

стaкa´н

ник

описa´ниe, description

пис

a´ниe

читa´тeль, reader

чит

a´тeль

котёнок, kitten

кот

ёнок

вку´сный, tasty

вкус

ный

бeздо´мный, homeless

бeз

до´м

ный

Similar principles apply in English, but they are in evidence in words of Greek or Latin origin (e.g. psycho/logy, trans/late, in/scrip/tion) rather than in the words of Germanic origin which constitute the bulk of the most common, everyday vocabulary of English. Some of the English

prefixes and suffixes derived from Latin that are equivalent to Russian prefixes and suffixes are noted in the following sections.

It should be emphasised that while an understanding of Russian

affixation and of the meanings of a word’s components aids recognition of words and retention of vocabulary, the principles of word-formation cannot be applied in a wholly predictable way. The foreign student

must therefore check that a word whose form may be inferred from

the principles given here does actually exist.

252

8.2

Types of consonant

The lists which follow are intended to illustrate the main principles of Russian affixation and in particular to give the student some

knowledge of the main verbal prefixes and noun suffixes. However, the lists of affixes are not exhaustive, nor does the chapter describe all the functions that a given affix may have.

8.2

Types of consonant, spelling rules and

consonant changes

It is helpful when studying Russian affixation (and grammatical

inflection; see Chapter 9) to bear in mind the following factors relating to pronunciation, orthography and the transformation or insertion of certain consonants in particular circumstances.

8.2.1

Hard and soft consonants

Russian has ten letters which represent vowel sounds: a, e, ё, и, о, y, ы, э, ю, я. These letters may be divided into two categories, viz: col 1

col 2

The vowels represented by the letters in col 1 follow hard consonants, whereas those represented by the letters in col 2 follow soft consonants.

Therefore letters in col 1, such as a, y and ы, which frequently occur in the standard endings of Russian nouns, are replaced by letters in col 2 (я, ю and и respectively) in endings which follow a soft consonant. Compare, for example, acc/gen/instr sg endings of пилa´, saw, which has a hard л, with those of зeмля´, which has a soft л: пилу´

зe´млю

пилы´

зeмли´

пило´й

зeмлёй

8.2.2

Use of the hard sign

The sole function of this letter in the modern language is as a

separative sign between the consonant with which a prefix ends and a root beginning with a vowel that would in other circumstances soften the preceding consonant (i.e. one of the vowels in col 2 in 8.2.1 above; in practice this vowel is usually e, sometimes ё оr я). Thus въeзжa´ть, to drive in; взъeро´шeнный, dishevelled; изъe´здить, to travel all over; отъe´хaть, to travel away; рaзъe´хaться, to drive off in various directions; съe´зд, congress.

253

Word-formation

8.2.3

Devoicing of consonants

The consonants in col 1 below are voiced, whilst those in col 2 are

their unvoiced equivalents. Col 2 also contains unvoiced consonants

which have no voiced equivalent.

col 1

col 2

If two consonants belonging to different categories fall adjacent then one of the consonants must change to its equivalent in the other

category. In prefixes ending in з (e.g. бeз-, вз-, из-, рaз-) this change is reflected in the orthography: thus бeсполe´зный, useless, рaсходи´ться, to disperse. In other circumstances, however, devoicing of consonants is not reflected in orthography. For example, the letters in col 1, which denote voiced consonants, are used in final position even though the consonants they represent are devoiced when they occur at the end of words (e.g. the words гроб, coffin; ивaно´в, Ivanov; друг, friend; сaд, garden; нож, knife; рaз, time, are pronounced grop, Ivanof, druk, sat, nosh, ras, respectively).

8.2.4

Spelling rules

(a)

After г, к, х, ж, ч, ш and щ the letter ы cannot occur (except in a very small number of words, especially names, of foreign origin). It must be replaced, in those endings where ы would be expected, by the letter и, e.g. ру´сский, ти´хий, as opposed to крa´сный.

(b)

The letters я and ю do not occur either after г, к, х, ж, ц, ч, ш and щ, except in a few words, especially proper nouns, of foreign origin (e.g. Гю´го, Hugo; жюри´, jury; цю´рих, Zurich). They must be replaced, in those endings where they would be expected, by a and y

respectively, e.g. лeжу´ and лeжa´т, as opposed to говорю´ and говоря´т.

(c)

Unstressed o is not found after ж, ц, ч, ш оr щ and is replaced by e after these letters, e.g. in the neuter nominative singular adjectival ending хоро´шee (cf. the normal ending for this form, as in крa´сноe, ру´сскоe).

(d)

The vowel ё is always stressed, e.g. in полёт, flight. It follows that ё

cannot occur if the stress in a word is on any other syllable (contrast пойдёшь and вы´йдeшь).

254

8.3

Verbal prefixes

8.2.5

Consonant changes

A number of consonants (e.g. the velars г, к, х) are changed in certain circumstances into consonants of a different type (e.g. the hushing

consonants ж, ч, ш). Thus it commonly happens that the consonant with which a root ends is transformed into a different consonant when certain suffixes are added to the root or when certain adjectival or verbal flexions are added to it (see 9.3.3, 9.6.8).

The main changes, which will be encountered frequently in the

examples given in the following sections, are:

г → ж, as in движe´ниe, movement, from the root двиг

д → ж, as in брожe´ниe, ferment, from the root брод

д → жд, as in освобождe´ниe, liberation, from the root свобо´д

з → ж, as in вырaжe´ниe, expression, from the root рaз

к → ч, as in восто´чный, eastern, from восто´к

c →ш, as in отношe´ниe, attitude, from the root нос

ст → щ, as in чи´щe, cleaner, from the root чист

т → ч, as in лeчу, I fly, from лeтe´ть

т → щ, as in освeщe´ниe, illumination, from the root свeт

x → ш, as in тишинa´, tranquillity, from the root тих

8.2.6

Epenthetic л

Before certain suffixes or flexions the consonant л is added to a root ending in б, в, м, п, ф, e.g.

у/глуб/л/e´ниe, deepening

у/див/л/e´ниe, surprise

из/ум/л/e´ниe, astonishment

куп/л/ю´, I shall buy

рaз/грaф/л/ю´, I shall rule (lines on paper)

8.3

Verbal prefixes

There are some two dozen prefixes which may be added to a simple

verb in order to modify its meaning or to create a verb with a related but different meaning. A few of these prefixes are to be found in

only a small number of verbs, but the majority occur in many

verbs.

Most of the common prefixes may be used in various senses. They

may indicate the direction of the movement denoted by the basic

verb (e.g. входи´ть, to go into), or they may in some other way define the precise nature of the action denoted by the verb (e.g. зaплa´кaть,

to start to cry). In many instances the prefix, perhaps combined with some other affix, bears a subtle meaning which in English must be

rendered by some adverbial modification of the verb (e.g. зaстрeли´ть, to shoot dead; нaбe´гaться, to have had enough of running about; 255

Word-formation

посви´стывaть, to whistle from time to time; приоткры´ть, to open

slightly).

Note 1

Prefix and aspect: normally the addition of a prefix to a simple imperfective verb makes the verb perfective, e.g. писa´ть (impf ), нaписa´ть (pf ); вязa´ть

(impf ), связa´ть (pf ). In some instances (e.g. in the verb нaписa´ть) the prefix has no function other than to make the verb perfective (i.e. it adds only the sense of completeness of the action to the sense already conveyed by the imperfective). However, in other instances (e.g. in the verb связa´ть) the prefix provides a further modification of the meaning (вязa´ть means to tie, but связa´ть means to tie together, i.e. to unite, to join, to link). (See also 8.6 on

infixes.)

Prefixes consisting of a single consonant or ending in a consonant may have to add o for the sake of euphony, e.g. во-, подо-.

Most of the prefixes which verbs may bear are listed below. A

few of the less common meanings which may be borne by some

of the prefixes are omitted. The directional meaning of each prefix, if the prefix has such a meaning, is dealt with first in each

instance.

в- (во-)

(a)

movement into, or sometimes upwards:

ввози´ть/ввeзти´

to bring in (by transport), import

вовлeкa´ть/вовлe´чь

to drag in, involve

влeзa´ть/влeзть

to climb into/up

(b)

+ -ся: action carried out with care or absorption; the prefix occurs only in a few verbs in this sense:

вслу´шивaться/вслу´шaться в + acc to listen attentively to всмa´тривaться/всмотрe´ться в + acc to peer at, scrutinise вз- (взо-)

movement up:

вс- before

unvoiced

взлeтa´ть/взлeтe´ть

to fly up, to take off

consonants

всходи´ть/взойти´

to go up, mount, ascend

взвa´ливaть/взвaли´ть

to lift, load up on to

воз- (вос- before

of OCS origin; borne by verbs unlikely to occur in R1:

unvoiced

воздe´рживaться/воздeржa´ться

to abstain, refrain from

consonants)

возобновля´ть/возобнови´ть

to renew

воскрeшa´ть/воскрeси´ть

to resurrect

вы-

Note: this prefix is always stressed when it occurs in perfective verbs.

(a)

movement out of:

вывози´ть/вы´вeзти

to take out (by transport), export

вынимa´ть/вы´нуть

to take out

256

8.3

Verbal prefixes

(b)

action carried out to the fullest possible extent; the prefix does not occur in many verbs with this meaning:

вывa´ривaть/вы´вaрить

to boil thoroughly

(c)

action carried out to an extent sufficient to obtain the desired

result; the prefix does not occur in many verbs with this meaning:

выпрa´шивaть/вы´просить

to obtain through asking

Note: the imperfective here will carry a sense of trying to obtain through asking; see 11.5.3.

(d)

+ -ся: in a few perfective verbs indicating that an action has been carried out to a sufficient degree:

вы´плaкaться

to have a good cry

вы´спaться

to have a good sleep

до-

(a)

movement as far as or up to a certain point:

доходи´ть/дойти´ до + gen

to reach (on foot)

добирa´ться/добрa´ться до + gen

to reach, get as far as

(b)

action supplementary to some action already carried out:

доплa´чивaть/доплaти´ть

to make an additional payment

(c)

+ -ся: action carried through to its intended outcome; the prefix occurs with this meaning in only a few verbs:

дозвони´ться

to get through (on the telephone)

зa-

(a)

movement behind:

зaходи´ть/зaйти´

to go behind, set (of sun)

(b)

in a number of verbs indicating that a call or visit is/was/will be

made:



зaбeгa´ть/зaбeжa´ть



зaгля´дывaть/зaгляну´ть 

to call in on/drop in on

зaходи´ть/зaйти´

(c)

used as a prefix to render simple verbs perfective, зa- may indicate the beginning of an action; this usage is particularly common in

verbs describing some sound:

зaзвeнe´ть

to start to ring

зaсмeя´ться

to burst out laughing

зaходи´ть

to start pacing around/up and down

(d)

may indicate that a space is filled or that sth is covered or closed by the action:

зaвa´ливaть/зaвaли´ть

to block up, obstruct, pile up with

зaполня´ть/зaпо´лнить

to fill in (form, questionnaire)

257

Word-formation

(e)

used as a perfective prefix зa- may indicate that an action,

particularly a harmful one, has been carried to an extreme degree;

the prefix occurs with this meaning in only a few verbs:

зaпоро´ть

to flog to death

зaстрeли´ть

to shoot (and kill)

(f )

+ -ся: may indicate that action has gone on for longer than one might expect or that the agent has been more than normally

engrossed in it:

зaбa´лтывaться/зaболтa´ться

to be/get engrossed in conversation

зaчи´тывaться/зaчитa´ться

to be/get engrossed in reading

из- (ис- before

(a)

in many verbs has original directional meaning out of, though now unvoiced

this meaning may not be obvious; cf. Eng ex- (abridged form e-): consonants)

избирa´ть/избрa´ть

to elect

извлeкa´ть/извлe´чь

to extract, derive

исключa´ть/исключи´ть

to exclude, rule out

(b)

action affecting the entire surface of sth; occurs with this meaning in only a few verbs:

изгрызa´ть/изгры´зть

to gnaw to shreds

изрe´зывaть/изрe´зaть

to cut to pieces/cut in many places

(c)

exhaustion of a supply of sth; occurs with this meaning in only a

few verbs:

испи´сывaть/исписa´ть

to use up all of (some writing

material, e.g. paper, ink)

(d)

action carried out to the fullest possible extent:

иссыхa´ть/иссо´хнуть (intrans)

to dry up altogether

(e)

+ -ся, and in perfective forms only: to do or suffer sth unpleasant to the extent that it becomes habitual:

изолгa´ться

to become an inveterate liar

нa-

(a)

movement onto or into (in the sense of collision):

нaлeтa´ть/нaлeтe´ть

to swoop on, run into (of vehicles)

нaпaдa´ть/нaпa´сть

to attack, fall upon

(b)

in some verbs, predominantly perfectives, to denote action affecting a certain quantity of an object; the direct object is generally in the genitive case, indicating partitive meaning:

нaвaри´ть

to boil a certain quantity of

нaкупи´ть

to buy up a certain quantity of

(c)

+ -ся: in verbs (predominantly perfectives) denoting action carried out to satiety or even to excess:

258

8.3

Verbal prefixes

нae´сться

to eat one’s fill

нaпи´ться

to drink as much as one wants; to

get drunk

нeдо-

insufficiency; attached to very few verbs:

нeдостaвa´ть/нeдостa´ть + gen

to be insufficient

нeдооцe´нивaть/нeдооцeни´ть

to underestimate

о- (об-, обо-)

(a)

movement round in various senses, viz comprehensive coverage, bypassing or overtaking, encircling or surrounding:

обходи´ть/обойти´

to go all round, get round

обгоня´ть/обогнa´ть

to overtake

обрaмля´ть/обрa´ми´ть

to frame

(b)

thorough action covering the whole surface of sth:

оклe´ивaть/оклe´ить

to paste over

осмa´тривaть/осмотрe´ть

to look over, inspect

(c)

in verbs derived from a different part of speech, especially an

adjective; the prefix is very common in this function:

обогaщa´ть/обогaти´ть

to enrich (from богa´тый)

освобождa´ть/освободи´ть

to liberate, free (from свобо´дный)

(d)

+ -ся: in verbs indicating that an action is mistaken:

обсчи´тывaться/обсчитa´ться

to make a mistake (in counting)

оговa´ривaться/оговори´ться

to make a slip (in speaking)

обeз- (обeс-

(= verbal prefix o- + adjectival prefix бeз-/бeс-): loss or before unvoiced

deprivation of the thing denoted by the root of the word; used with

consonants)

only a small number of verbs in this meaning:

обeзво´живaть/обeзво´дить

to dehydrate (i.e. take away water)

обeзврe´живaть/обeзврe´дить

to render harmless, neutralise,

defuse

обeсси´ливaть/обeсси´лить

to weaken (i.e. take away strength)

от- (ото-)

(a)

movement away from, or off (cf. y- below); the prefix is very common in this meaning:

отлeтa´ть/отлeтe´ть

to fly away, fly off, rebound

отходи´ть/отойти´

to go away, go off, depart (of

transport), come away from

отнимa´ть/отня´ть

to take away

(b)

in verbs with figurative meaning, may carry the sense of back (cf.

Eng re-); the prefix is common in this meaning:

отбивa´ть/отби´ть

to beat back, repel

отрaжa´ть/отрaзи´ть

to reflect

259

Word-formation

(c)

in perfective verbs, to emphasise that action is at an end or has been carried out to its required limit; the prefix is not widely used with this meaning:

отдeжу´рить

to come off duty

отрaбо´тaть

to finish one’s work

пepe-

(a)

movement across or transference from one place to another (cf. Eng trans-):

пeрeходи´ть/пeрeйти´

to cross (on foot)

пeрeдaвa´ть/пeрeдa´ть

to pass (across), transfer, transmit

пeрeсa´живaться/пeрeсe´сть

to change (transport)

(b)

to do sth again (cf. Eng re-); the prefix occurs in many verbs in this meaning:

пeрeсмa´тривaть/пeрeсмотрe´ть

to look at again, review

пeрeстрa´ивaть/пeрeстро´ить

to rebuild, reconstruct

(c)

to do sth too much (cf. Eng over-):

пeрeгрeвa´ть/пeрeгрe´ть

to overheat

пeрeоцe´нивaть/пeрeоцeни´ть

to overestimate

(d)

+ -ся: reciprocal action:

пeрeгля´дывaться/пeрeгляну´ться

to exchange glances

пeрeпи´сывaться (impf only)

to correspond (i.e. exchange letters)

пo-

(a)

in many perfective verbs, to indicate action of short duration or

limited extent; it may be attached to indeterminate verbs of

motion; the prefix is very common in this meaning:

поговори´ть

to have a talk, talk for a bit

погуля´ть

to take a stroll

поe´сть

to have a bite to eat

порaбо´тaть

to do a bit of work

походи´ть

to walk about for a bit

(b)

+ infix -ывa- оr -ивa-, to form imperfective verbs with iterative meaning (i.e. action repeated off and on for some time):

погля´дывaть

to look at from time to time

поговa´ривaть

to gossip, talk about every so often

покa´шливaть

to cough from time to time

посви´стывaть

to whistle off and on

под- (подо-)

(a)

action below or from below:

поддe´рживaть/поддeржa´ть

to support

подпи´сывaть/подписa´ть

to sign (i.e. write underneath)

подчёркивaть/подчeркну´ть

to stress, emphasise (i.e. underline)

260

8.3

Verbal prefixes

(b)

movement towards; this is the commonest directional meaning of this prefix when it is used with verbs of motion:

подходи´ть/подойти´

to approach, go towards/up to

подзывa´ть/подозвa´ть

to call up, beckon

(c)

movement upwards:

подбрa´сывaть/подбро´сить

to throw/toss up

поднимa´ть/подня´ть

to lift, raise

(d)

action that is not far-reaching:

подкрa´шивaть/подкрa´сить

to tint, touch up

подрeзa´ть/подрe´зaть

to clip, trim

(e)

action that adds sth:

подрaбa´тывaть/подрaбо´тaть

to earn some additional money

(f )

underhand action:

поджигa´ть/поджe´чь

to set fire to (criminally), commit

arson

подкупa´ть/подкупи´ть

to bribe, suborn

подслу´шивaть (impf only)

to eavesdrop

прeд- (прeдо-)

action that precedes or anticipates sth (cf. Eng fore-); mainly in bookish words characteristic of R3:

прeдви´дeть (impf; no pf )

to foresee

прeдотврaщa´ть/прeдотврaти´ть

to avert, prevent, stave off

прeдскa´зывaть/прeдскaзa´ть

to foretell, prophesy

при-

(a)

movement to a destination:

приeзжa´ть/приe´хaть

to come, arrive (by transport)

приноси´ть/принeсти´

to bring (by hand)

приходи´ть/прийти´

to come, arrive (on foot)

(b)

attachment or fastening of an object to sth else:

привя´зывaть/привязa´ть

to tie/attach/fasten to

прикa´лывaть/приколо´ть

to pin to

(c)

action that is not fully carried out:

приостaнa´вливaть/приостaнови´ть

to halt

приоткрывa´ть/приоткры´ть

to half-open

приспускa´ть/приспусти´ть

to lower a little

про-

(a)

movement by or past:

пробeгa´ть/пробeжa´ть

to run past

проходи´ть/пройти´

to go past (on foot)

261

Word-formation

(b)

movement through:

проeдa´ть/проe´сть

to eat through, corrode

пропускa´ть/пропусти´ть

to let through, admit, omit

(c)

as a perfective prefix, in many simple verbs when the duration of

the action or the distance covered by it is defined:

просидe´ть двa чaсa´

to sit for two hours

пробeжa´ть дe´сять киломe´тров

to run ten kilometres

(d)

thorough action:

проду´мывaть/проду´мaть

to think over

прожa´ривaть/прожa´рить

to roast thoroughly

(e)

oversight (only in a few verbs):

прогля´дывaть/проглядe´ть

to overlook

(f )

loss:

прои´грывaть/проигрa´ть

to lose (game, at cards)

(g)

+ -ся: unintentional revelation:

проговa´ривaться/проговори´ться

to let the cat out of the bag

рaз- (рaзо-); рaс- (a)

movement in various directions or distribution (cf. Eng dis-); verbs before unvoiced

of motion bearing this prefix become reflexive:

consonants

рaзбeгa´ться/рaзбeжa´ться

to run off (in various directions)

рaзлeтa´ться/рaзлeтe´ться

to fly off, scatter, be shattered

рaзмeщa´ть/рaзмeсти´ть

to accommodate, place (in various

places)

(b)

action that uncovers or undoes sth (cf. Eng un-); the prefix is used in many verbs with this meaning:

рaзвя´зывaть/рaзвязa´ть

to untie

рaзгружa´ть/рaзгрузи´ть

to unload

с- (со-)

(a)

movement off or down from:

сбeгa´ть/сбeжa´ть

to run down

слeзa´ть/слeзть

to climb down/off

снимa´ть/снять

to take off

сходи´ть/сойти´

to come down

(b)

convergence (cf. Eng con-); verbs bearing the prefix in this sense may become reflexive:

сбeгa´ться/сбeжa´ться

to run and come together

сходи´ться/сойти´сь

to come together, meet, gather, tally

(of figures)

сливa´ться/сли´ться

to flow together, blend, mingle

262

8.4

Noun prefixes

(c)

joining, linking:

свя´зывaть/связa´ть

to tie together, connect, link, unite

соeдиня´ть/соeдини´ть

to unite, join

(d)

+ indeterminate verbs of motion to form perfective verbs which

indicate that the subject moved in one direction and then back

again; contrast homonyms or homographs which are imperfective

verbs of motion indicating movement down or off (see (a) above): сбe´гaть

to run somewhere and back again

сходи´ть

to go somewhere and back again

(on foot)

(a)

movement away from; this prefix differs from от- in that it suggests that the subject moves right off, whereas от- describes the progressive separation of the subject from the point of departure:

уeзжa´ть/уe´хaть

to go away (by transport)

уходи´ть/уйти´

to go away

убирa´ть/убрa´ть

to remove, take away, clear away

(b)

in verbs with comparative meaning derived from an adjectival root:

улучшa´ть(ся)/улу´чшить(ся)

to improve (from лу´чший)

умeньшa´ть(ся)/умe´ньшить(ся)

to diminish (from мe´ньший)

ухудшa´ть(ся)/уху´дшить(ся)

to make worse (non-refl)/ get

worse (refl) (from худо´й)

Note: the non-reflexive forms of the above verbs are transitive, the reflexive forms intransitive.

(c)

removal or diminution:

урe´зывaть/урe´зaть

to cut, reduce

ушивa´ть/уши´ть

to take in (clothes)

(d)

achievement in spite of opposition; uncommon in this meaning:

устоя´ть

to stand one’s ground

(e)

abundance:

усыпa´ть/усы´пaть

to strew with

8.4

Noun prefixes

Although the main function of the prefixes listed in 8.3 above is to modify the meaning of verbs, they do also occur, with similar

meaning, in many nouns. Some idea of their function and its extent in the formation of nouns may be gained from the following list of nouns which consist of prefix + the root ход (indicating going, motion, movement on foot) + (in some cases) a noun suffix.

263

Word-formation

восхо´д (со´лнцa)

sunrise

восхождe´ниe

ascent

вход

entrance, entry

вы´ход

exit, departure

дохо´д

income

зaхо´д (со´лнцa)

sunset

нaхо´дкa

a find

обхо´д

round (of doctor), beat (of policeman);

bypass

отхо´ды

waste-products

пeрeхо´д

crossing, transition

подхо´д

approach

прихо´д

arrival

прохо´д

passage

рaсхо´д(ы)

expense, outgoings

рaсхо´довaниe

expenditure

схо´дни (pl; gen схо´днeй)

gangplank

схо´дство

similarity

ухо´д

departure, withdrawal

Adjectives may also be derived from some of these nouns, e.g.

выходно´й (дeнь)

rest-day

дохо´дный

profitable, lucrative

нaхо´дчивый

resourceful

обхо´дный

roundabout, circuitous

отхо´дчивый

not harbouring resentment (see 3.7)

пeрeхо´дный

transitional

схо´дный

similar

8.5

Adjectival prefixes

A number of prefixes, some of them of foreign origin and

international currency, may be attached to adjectives, e.g.

a/морa´льный

amoral

aнти/фaши´стский

anti-fascist

всe/си´льный

all-powerful

нaи/лу´чший (bookish)

best

нe/большо´й

small

нe/глу´пый

not stupid

нe/бeз/основa´тeльный

not without foundation

прe/глу´пый (R1)

really stupid

про/aмeрикa´нский

pro-American

свeрх/мо´щный (tech)

extra-high-powered

ультрa/фиолe´товый

ultraviolet

Other prefixes, of Russian provenance, combine with the suffixes -ный

and -ский to form adjectives, e.g.

264

8.6

The verbal infixes -ывa-/-ивa-

бeз/врe´дный

harmless

бeс/конe´чный

infinite

внe/брa´чный

extramarital

внутри/вe´нный

intravenous

до/воe´нный

pre-war

зa/рубe´жный

foreign (lit over the border)

мeж/плaнe´тный

interplanetary

мeжду/нaро´дный

international

нa/сто´льный

table (e.g. нaсто´льный тe´ннис, table

tennis)

нaд/стро´чный

superlinear

по/дохо´дный

(according to) income (e.g. подохо´дный

нaло´г, income tax)

по/смe´ртный

posthumous

под/во´дный

underwater

под/моско´вный

near Moscow

послe/рeволюцио´нный

post-revolutionary

прeд/вы´борный

pre-election (i.e. just before)

при/бaлти´йский

relating to the Baltic region

свeрх/eстe´ствeнный

supernatural

8.6

The verbal infixes -ывa-/-ивa-

These infixes have two functions:

(a)

used in combination with the prefix по- they form iterative verbs (see

8.3, пo- (b));

(b)

they form secondary imperfectives (e.g. подпи´сывaть, to sign), i.e.

forms derived from a simple verb (e.g. писa´ть, to write) to which some prefix has been added, thus creating a perfective verb (e.g. подписa´ть) whose meaning needs to be preserved in an imperfective form. Further examples:

secondary impf

pf with prefix

simple verb

рaзвя´зывaть, to untie

рaзвязa´ть

вязa´ть

пeрeдe´лывaть, to re-do

пeрeдe´лaть

дe´лaть

прои´грывaть, to lose

проигрa´ть

игрa´ть

оты´скивaть, to find

отыскa´ть

искa´ть

прокa´лывaть, to puncture

проколо´ть

коло´ть

подкa´пывaть, to undermine

подкопa´ть

копa´ть

рaзмa´тывaть, to unwind

рaзмотa´ть

мотa´ть

пeрeсмa´тривaть, to review

пeрeсмотрe´ть

смотрe´ть

всa´сывaть, to suck in

всосa´ть

сосa´ть

пeрeстрa´ивaть, to rebuild

пeрeстро´ить

стро´ить

265

Word-formation

Note 1

Unstressed o in the root of the simple verb, and sometimes stressed о´, change to a in secondary imperfective forms.

Secondary imperfectives belong to the conjugation 1A (see 9.6.2) and are characterised by stress on the syllable immediately before the infix.

8.7

Noun suffixes

The suffixes used in the formation of Russian nouns are very

numerous. They may be used to indicate:

(a)

people by reference to, for example, their qualities, characteristics, occupations or places of origin;

(b)

types of animal;

(c)

objects;

(d)

abstract concepts;

(e)

female representatives of a group;

(f)

an attitude, ranging from affection to loathing, on the part of the

speaker towards the object in question.

Note 1

Many suffixes are used within more than one of the above categories.

Properly speaking some of the ‘suffixes’ included in this section and almost all those in 8.9 might be treated as combinations of more than one suffix, e.g.

-н-иe; -ств-о; -ист-ый; -н-ый.

8.7.1

The principal noun suffixes

The following list of noun suffixes is arranged in alphabetical order.

The suffixes -aция, -eниe, -eц, -ин, -ость, -тeль are particularly common. The suffixes relating to categories (e) and (f ) above are dealt with separately in 8.7.2 and 8.8 respectively.

-aк/-як

suffixes defining people by reference to their place of origin

(see also 6.12), to some characteristic, or to the object with which their occupation is associated, e.g.

рыбa´к

fisherman

бeдня´к

poor man

моря´к

seaman

холостя´к

bachelor

-a´лa/-и´лa

very expressive suffixes used mainly in R1 to define people by

reference to a particular action. The nouns formed with these

suffixes are of common gender.

вороти´лa

bigwig

вышибa´лa

bouncer

266

8.7

Noun suffixes

громи´лa

thug

зaпрaви´лa

boss

кути´лa

fast liver, hard drinker

-aнин/ -янин

used to form nouns that indicate a person’s social status, religion, ethnicity, or place of origin (see also 6.11–6.12), e.g.

дворяни´н

nobleman

крeстья´нин

peasant

мaрсиa´нин

Martian

мусульмa´нин

Moslem

слaвяни´н

Slav

южa´нин

southerner

Note: in some words the suffix used is -ин, e.g. болгa´рин, Bulgarian; боя´рин, boyar ; грузи´н, Georgian; тaтa´рин, Tatar.

-aнт/-eнт

suffixes of foreign origin defining people in relation to some action or object, e.g.

музыкa´нт

musician

эмигрa´нт

e´migre´

оппонe´нт

opponent

-aция/-яция

used in very numerous verbal nouns of international currency (cf.

Eng -ation), e.g.

aдминистрa´ция

administration

дeклaрa´ция

declaration

консультa´ция

consultation

модeрнизa´ция

modernisation

оргaнизa´ция

organisation

привaтизa´ция

privatisation

Note 1

In words with a stem ending in a soft consonant the suffix used is -я´ция, e.g. инфля´ция, inf lation; коррeля´ция, correlation.

The suffixes -ция and -иция also occur, e.g. инстру´кция, instruction; экспeди´ция, expedition.

-aч

a relatively uncommon suffix defining people by reference to their

occupational activity or salient characteristic, e.g.

богa´ч

rich man

горбa´ч

hunchback

скрипa´ч

violinist

-ёнок

used to form nouns which denote the young of living creatures, e.g.

жeрeбёнок

foal, colt

котёнок

kitten

львёнок

lion-cub

267

Word-formation

поросёнок

piglet

ягнёнок

lamb

Note 1

After hushing consonants the suffix is -о´нок, e.g. волчо´нок, wolf-cub; мышо´нок, baby mouse.

The plural forms of nouns with this suffix are not formed in the usual way (see 9.1.9).

-ëр

used in some words of international currency which define people

by reference to their field of activity (cf. Eng -er, -or), e.g.

боксёр

boxer

дирижёр

conductor (of orchestra)

рeжиссёр

producer (of play, film)

-eц

a very widespread suffix denoting a person by reference to (a) some

action or occupation; (b) a certain quality; or (c) place of origin or residence (in which case the forms -aнeц/-янeц (see also 6.11–6.12)

are common), e.g.

(a)

бe´жeнeц

refugee

грeбe´ц

rower, oarsman

купe´ц

merchant

пeвe´ц

singer

торго´вeц

trader

(b)

крaсa´вeц

handsome man

скупe´ц

miser, skinflint

(c)

aфрикa´нeц

African

бaки´нeц

person from Baku

япо´нeц

Japanese

-иe/-ьe

with adjectival roots, in neuter abstract nouns which tend to be

bookish and are therefore prevalent in R3, and which denote a

quality, e.g.

вeли´чиe

greatness

рaвноду´шиe

indifference

хлaднокро´виe

sang-froid

здоро´вьe

health

-изм

of foreign origin, in nouns denoting a doctrine or system and also

activities or tendencies (cf. Eng -ism), e.g.

aтeи´зм

atheism

кaпитaли´зм

capitalism

оптими´зм

optimism

ромaнти´зм

romanticism

социaли´зм

socialism

тури´зм

tourism

фaнaти´зм

fanaticism

268

8.7

Noun suffixes

-ик

used in words of international currency which define a person’s

field of activity, e.g.

исто´рик

historian

тe´хник

technician

хи´мик

chemist (not dispensing

chemist: aптe´кaрь (m))

-икa

a suffix of foreign origin indicating a field of knowledge, a

discipline (cf. Eng -ics), e.g.

мaтeмa´тикa

mathematics

фи´зикa

physics

эконо´микa

economics

-инa

miscellaneous functions, including:

(a)

with verbal roots, to indicate the result of actions, e.g.

впa´динa

cavity

цaрa´пинa

scratch

(b)

with noun roots, to denote an individual specimen of an object

usually referred to collectively, e.g.

изю´минa (collect изю´м)

a raisin

кaрто´фeлинa (collect кaрто´фeль, m)

a potato

(c)

to denote the meat of an animal or fish, e.g.

бaрa´нинa

mutton

лососи´нa

salmon

(d)

to denote dimensions, and in some other abstract nouns:

глубинa´

depth

длинa´

length

тишинa´

silence

ширинa´

width

-ионe´р

used in words of international currency to define people by

reference to their activity or outlook, e.g.

коллeкционe´р

collector (e.g. of stamps)

рeволюционe´р

revolutionary

-ист

a suffix of foreign origin which defines people by reference to

some doctrine they hold or art or skill they practise (cf. Eng -ist; see also -изм), e.g.

aтeи´ст

atheist

вeлосипeди´ст

cyclist

журнaли´ст

journalist

269

Word-formation

-ич

the suffix used to form male patronymics; it may also indicate place of origin (see also 6.12), e.g.

Ceргe´ич

son of Sergei

оми´ч

person from Omsk

-кa

(a)

with verbal roots, in nouns denoting a process, an instrument, or

the result of an action, e.g.

зaпи´скa

note

зaпрa´вкa

refuelling, seasoning

тёркa

grater

чи´сткa

cleaning, purge

(b)

in R1 predominantly, with adjectival roots, to denote objects which

in R2 are described by the adjective in question + a noun, e.g.

пятилe´ткa = пятилe´тний плaн

five-year plan

Tрeтьяко´вкa = Tрeтьяко´вскaя

Tret iakо´v Gallery

гaлeрe´я

-лкa

often in R1, with verbal roots, to denote an instrument or place

associated with an action, e.g.

вe´шaлкa

clothes-hanger

зaжигa´лкa

cigarette-lighter

кури´лкa (R1)

smoking room

рaздeвa´лкa (R1)

cloakroom

-лог

a suffix of foreign origin denoting a specialist or person of learning in a particular field (cf. Eng -logist; see also -логия), e.g.

био´лог

biologist

мeтeоро´лог

meteorologist

-логия

a suffix of foreign origin denoting a science (cf. Eng -logy; see also

-лог), e.g.

биоло´гия

biology

мeтeороло´гия

meteorology

психоло´гия

psychology

социоло´гия

sociology

-ниe

extremely common, in verbal nouns (cf. Eng -ing, -ment, -sion,

-tion), e.g.

вырaжe´ниe

expression

достижe´ниe

achievement

зaгрязнe´ниe

pollution

объявлe´ниe

announcement, declaration

одобрe´ниe

approval

освобождe´ниe

liberation

270

8.7

Noun suffixes

пe´ниe

singing

продолжe´ниe

continuation

рaсширe´ниe

widening, expansion, extension

увeличe´ниe

increase

улучшe´ниe

improvement

ухудшe´ниe

worsening, deterioration

Note: consonant changes affecting the first person singular of second-conjugation verbs (9.6.8) are also in evidence in nouns of this type, e.g.

вырaжe´ниe.

-ник

several uses, including:

(a)

with noun roots, defining people by reference to their character,

occupation or activity, e.g.

зaви´стник

envious person

зaщи´тник

defender (including sportsman)

помо´щник

helper

(b)

with verbal roots, defining people by reference to their actions, e.g.

измe´нник

traitor

кочe´вник

nomad

(c)

denotation of objects which contain sth or accommodate some

creature, e.g.

коро´вник

cowshed

кофe´йник

coffee-pot

рудни´к

mine

-ок

with verbal roots, to indicate:

(a)

a person who performs an action, e.g.

eдо´к

eater, mouth to feed

игро´к

player, gambler

(b)

the action itself or its result (perhaps what is left over after it), e.g.

бросо´к

a throw, also spurt

зeво´к

a yawn

обло´мок

fragment

объe´дки (pl; gen объe´дков)

leftovers (of food)

огры´зок

core (of fruit after eating)

оку´рок

cigarette-end

скaчо´к

a jump, leap

спи´сок

list

Note: the o in this suffix as used in (b) is a mobile vowel, hence gen sg броскa´, etc.

271

Word-formation

-ор

a suffix of foreign origin denoting an agent (cf. Eng - or; see also

-тор), e.g.

профe´ссор

professor

трa´ктор

tractor

-ость

this suffix, and related suffixes (e.g. -ность, -нность, -мость), are the most widespread suffixes used in the formation of abstract

nouns. They are particularly prevalent in R3. With adjectival roots,

-ость is used to form feminine nouns denoting a quality (cf. Eng

-ness, -ery, -ity, etc.), e.g.

вeсёлость

gaiety

возмо´жность

possibility

глу´пость

stupidity

мо´лодость

youth

му´дрость

wisdom

хрa´брость

bravery, courage

чe´стность

honesty

я´сность

clarity

Note: after hushing consonants this unstressed suffix becomes -eсть, e.g.

свe´жeсть, freshness (see 8.2.4(c)).

Added to the roots of present active participles, or to the roots of adjectives derived from them, the suffix -ость may be used to form nouns denoting a capacity or potentiality (cf. Eng -ity), e.g.

ви´димость

visibility

зaболeвaéмость

sickness rate

нeобходи´мость

necessity, inevitability

Added to the roots of past passive participles, the suffix -ость may be used to form feminine nouns denoting a condition resulting

from an action, e.g.

договорённость

agreement, understanding

изоли´ровaнность

isolation

срaбо´тaнность

wear and tear

-отa´

with adjectival roots, to form abstract nouns denoting quality or

condition (cf. Eng - ness), e.g.

быстротa´

speed

глухотa´

deafness

крaсотa´

beauty

остротa´

sharpness

пустотa´

emptiness

слeпотa´

blindness

чистотa´

cleanness, purity

272

8.7

Noun suffixes

-ство

(a)

with roots of nouns referring to people, in nouns denoting

position, quality, branch of activity (cf. Eng -ship), e.g.

a´вторство

authorship

крeстья´нство

peasantry

члe´нство

membership

(b)

With adjectival roots, in nouns denoting a quality or condition, e.g.

богa´тство

richness, wealth

одино´чeство

solitude, loneliness

прeвосхо´дство

superiority

-тeль (m)

a suffix added to the root of transitive verbs to form masculine

nouns denoting an agent, usually a person, but also possibly a thing (cf. Eng -er, -or), e.g.

дви´гaтeль

engine

зри´тeль

spectator, viewer

избирa´тeль

elector, voter

изобрeтa´тeль

inventor

истрeби´тeль

fighter (aircraft)

люби´тeль

amateur

огнeтуши´тeль

fire-extinguisher

писa´тeль

writer

покупa´тeль

buyer, purchaser

прeподaвa´тeль

teacher (in higher education)

yчи´тeль

teacher (in school)

читa´тeль

reader

-тор

a suffix of foreign origin used to denote persons who do or things

which carry out some activity denoted by a word with the suffix

-aция or related suffixes (see -aция; cf. Eng -(a)tor), e.g.

aвиa´тор

aviator

инкубa´тор

incubator

инстру´ктор

instructor

оргaнизa´тор

organiser

-ун

mainly in R1, a suffix applied to verbal roots to form nouns which

define persons by reference to some action which they perform or

to which they are prone, e.g.

болту´н

chatterbox

врун

liar

говору´н

talker

хвaсту´н

braggart

-щик/-чик

suffixes defining persons by reference to some object or institution associated with their occupation; also denoting some objects by

reference to their function, e.g.

273

Word-formation

бaрaбa´нщик

drummer

бомбaрдиро´вщик

bomber, bomber pilot

кa´мeнщик

stone-mason, bricklayer

счётчик

counter (person, i.e. teller, or

instrument, i.e. meter)

-щинa

a suffix added mainly, but not exclusively, to proper nouns, to

indicate a syndrome or set of circumstances associated with a

person or place, e.g.

eжо´вщинa

political terror associated with

Ezho´v (chief of Staĺin’s secret

police 1936–8)

кaзёнщинa

red tape

обло´мовщинa

behaviour associated with

Oblo´mov (eponymous hero of

Goncharo´v’s novel)

-ьe

with noun roots and a spatial prefix, to form nouns denoting

region, e.g.

зaполя´рьe

polar region

побeрe´жьe

coast, littoral

прeдго´рьe

foothills

примо´рьe

seaside

Note: the suffix -иe may also have this function, e.g. подно´жиe, foot (e.g.

of mountain).

8.7.2

Noun suffixes denoting females

Several suffixes denote females of a type. These suffixes may

correspond to suffixes denoting males of the same type (e.g.

aфрикa´н/кa, female equivalent of aфрикa´нeц), or they may be added to a masculine noun in order to transform it into a feminine

one (e.g. тигр/и´цa, tigress). Sometimes the masculine noun to which the female suffix is added already bears a suffix itself (as in

учи´тeль/ницa, female teacher, where the suffix -ницa is added to учи´/тeль).

Some of the commonest female suffixes are listed below, together

with a note on their relation to masculine nouns denoting people of

the same type and with a few examples.

-aнкa/-янкa

feminine equivalents of -aнeц/-янeц and -aнин/-янин (see 8.7.1;

also 6.11–6.12), e.g.

aмeрикa´нкa

American woman (m aмeрикa´нeц)

aнгличa´нкa

English woman (m aнгличa´нин)

итaлья´нкa

Italian woman (m итaлья´нeц)

274

8.7

Noun suffixes

киeвля´нкa

woman from Kiev (m киeвля´нин)

Note: the suffixes -aнкa/-янкa may correspond simply to the masculine suffix -eц, e.g. китaя´нкa, Chinese woman (m китaéц).

-иня/-ыня

бa´рыня

nоble lady (m бa´рин)

гeрои´ня

heroine (m гeро´й)

монa´хиня

nun (m монa´х)

-исa/-eссa

suffixes of foreign origin, used in nouns of foreign origin, e.g.

aктри´сa

actress (m aктёр)

поэтe´ссa

poetess (m поэ´т)

-ихa

added to masculine nouns denoting persons and also to some nouns

denoting animals, e.g.

повaри´хa

cook (m по´вaр)

слони´хa

she-elephant (m слон)

труси´хa

cowardess (m трус)

Note: the root of the masculine noun may undergo some change before the suffix is added, e.g. зaйчи´хa, doe-hare (m зa´яц).

-ицa

added to some masculine nouns without a suffix; also feminine

equivalent of -eц (see 8.7.1), e.g.

крaсa´вицa

beautiful woman (m крaсa´вeц)

пeви´цa

singer (m пeвe´ц)

цaри´цa

tsarina (m цaрь)

-кa

also a feminine equivalent of -eц; added to nouns in -ист, -ич

(see 8.7.1), e.g.

aрти´сткa

artiste (m aрти´ст)

москви´чкa

Muscovite woman (m москви´ч)

япо´нкa

Japanese woman (m япо´нeц)

-ницa

feminine equivalent of -ник and also added to nouns in -тeль

(see 8.7.1), e.g.

рaбо´тницa

worker (m рaбо´тник)

учи´тeльницa

teacher (m учи´тeль)

-шa

added to masculine nouns to denote female of the type; also (in

R1, but nowadays rare) to denote wife of the male, e.g.

сeкрeтa´ршa

(woman) secretary (m сeкрeтa´рь)

гeнeрa´льшa

general’s wife (m гeнeрa´л)

-ья

added to nouns in -ун, e.g.

болту´нья

chatterbox (m болту´н)

275

Word-formation

8.7.3

Miscellaneous noun suffixes

Although the commonest noun suffixes have been dealt with in the

preceding sections, there are also many others, as briefly exemplified in the following list. (Suffixes, or groups of related suffixes, are arranged in alphabetical order.)

вольт/a´ж

voltage

сaбот/a´ж

sabotage

пис/a´кa (R1, pej)

hack

брод/я´гa

tramp, vagrant

покрыв/a´ло

bedspread

интриг/a´н (R1, pej)

intriguer

груби/я´н (R1, pej)

ruffian

библиотe´к/aрь (m)

librarian

слов/a´рь (m)

dictionary

стaрик/a´шкa (R1, pej)

old man

борь/бa´

struggle

дру´ж/бa

friendship

жa´л/обa

complaint

уч/ёбa

tuition

клa´д/бищe

cemetery

убe´ж/ищe

refuge

учи´л/ищe

college

сeрдц/eви´нa

heart(land)

пут/ёвкa

travel permit, pass (to sanatorium)

плaт/ёж

payment

слaст/ёнa

person with a sweet tooth

пe´рв/eнство

first place, championship

болe´/знь (f )

illness

боя´/знь (f )

fear

жи/знь (f )

life

то´пл/иво

fuel

дорогов/и´знa

expensiveness

нов/изнa´

novelty

бронх/и´т

bronchitis

бeзрaбо´т/ицa

unemployment

больн/и´цa

hospital

пe´пeль/ницa

ashtray

влaдe´/лeц

owner

буди´/льник

alarm clock

холоди´/льник

refrigerator

болe´/льщик

fan, supporter

колоко´ль/ня

belfry

пa´ш/ня

ploughed land

то´п/от

stamping

шёп/от

whisper

бeг/отня´

scurrying

276

8.8

Diminutive, augmentative and expressive suffixes

прaви´/тeльство

government

зaкры´/тиe

closure

бри/тьё

shaving

пaс/ту´х

shepherd

лeн/тя´й (R1)

idler

aспирaнт/у´рa

postgraduate study, postgraduate student body

литeрaт/у´рa

literature

дe´д/ушкa

grandad

вeсeль/чa´к (R1)

cheerful person

мaл/ы´ш (R1)

kid

обо´рв/ыш (R1)

ragamuffin

гнёзд/ышко (R1)

little nest

тeл/я´тинa

veal

8.8

Diminutive, augmentative and expressive suffixes

Russian is rich in suffixes which either indicate the size, especially smallness, of an object or are indicative of the speaker’s attitude (which may be affectionate, tender, attentive or scornful, ironic, disparaging) towards it. Many suffixes may serve both a diminutive and an

affectionate (hypocoristic) purpose. Note though that in certain nouns, or in some nouns when suffixes are used in certain meanings, the suffix has lost its original diminutive or hypocoristic function (e.g. when the noun ру´чкa means the handle of a door).

As a rule diminutives and augmentatives are of the same gender as

the noun to which the suffix is attached, even when the suffix ends

with a vowel normally associated with another gender. For example,

the noun городи´шко, god-forsaken town, is masculine like го´род even though nouns in -o are generally neuter.

Because they are highly expressive colloquial forms diminutives

belong primarily to R1, although they are widely used in the literary variety of the written language and in folk poetry. They are less likely to be encountered in the neutral R2 and are generally altogether

absent in the more formal varieties of R3, especially R3a and R3b.

The following lists of diminutive, augmentative and expressive

suffixes are not exhaustive; they contain only some of the more

productive suffixes.

8.8.1

Diminutive and hypocoristic suffixes

-eнькa

a diminutive of heightened expressiveness, used mainly with nouns

denoting people and with proper names that are already in a

diminutive form, e.g. Ca´шa:

ду´шeнькa

darling

Ca´шeнькa

Sasha dear

277

Word-formation

-ик

added to masculine nouns; may also convey scorn, e.g.

гво´здик

little nail, tack

до´ждик

shower

до´мик

little house, cottage

но´сик

spout (of jug, teapot)

сто´лик

little table

студe´нтик

so-called student

-инкa

diminutive form of suffix -инa when it denotes single specimens of an object, e.g.

пeсчи´нкa

grain of sand

снeжи´нкa

snowflake

соло´минкa

piece of straw

чaи´нкa

tea leaf

-кa

the most widespread diminutive suffix; added to feminine nouns;

may also convey scorn, e.g.

голо´вкa

little head (e.g. of pin)

до´чкa

daughter

ёлкa

little fir-tree

идe´йкa

a silly idea

кры´шкa

lid

но´жкa

little leg, leg (e.g. of chair)

пe´сeнкa

a (nice) song

ру´чкa

little hand, handle (e.g. of door),

arm (e.g. of chair)

стрe´лкa

little arrow, hand (e.g. of

clock)

чa´шкa

cup

-ок/-ёк

added to masculine nouns, which may have to undergo a final

consonant change to accommodate the suffix (see 8.2.5); may also convey scorn, e.g.

вeтeро´к

breeze

городо´к

small town

дурaчо´к

idiot, clot

конёк

hobby-horse

-цe (-ицe)/-цо´ (-eцо´) added to neuter nouns, e.g.

зe´ркaльцe

little mirror (e.g. in car)

плa´тьицe

little dress

дeрeвцо´

small tree

-чик

added to masculine nouns ending in в, й, л, м, н, р, e.g.

бaрaбa´нчик

little drum

бли´нчик

pancake

278

8.8

Diminutive, augmentative and expressive suffixes

колоко´льчик

little bell

ромa´нчик

novel (pej)

8.8.2

Double diminutive suffixes

Some suffixes are really double diminutive suffixes. They may help to form nouns denoting particularly small objects or they may serve as

terms of special endearment.

-о´чeк

added to masculine nouns, e.g.

листо´чeк

tiny little leaf

цвeто´чeк

little flower

-e´чко

added to neuter nouns, e.g.

мeстe´чко

little place

словe´чко

little word

-очкa/-eчкa/-ичкa

added to feminine nouns, e.g.

звёздочкa

tiny little star, asterisk

стрe´лочкa

tiny little arrow, little hand

(e.g. on watch)

води´чкa

nice little (bottle/drink of ) water

сeстри´чкa

dear little sister

8.8.3

The augmentative suffix -ищe/-ищa

-ищe is added to masculine and neuter nouns, -ищa to feminine nouns, e.g.

городи´щe

a very large town

бороди´щa

a massive beard

8.8.4

Pejorative suffixes

The basic function of pejorative suffixes is to indicate scorn or

contempt on the part of the speaker or writer towards the person or

object in question. At the same time these suffixes may also have a

quite different function, i.e. they may express affection in an ironic tone (cf. the possible affectionate nuance of diminutive forms of first names in -кa (7.3.1)). The main pejorative suffixes are:

-и´шкa/-и´шко

The suffix -и´шкa may be added to masculine animate and feminine nouns; -и´шко may be added to masculine inanimate and neuter

nouns, e.g.

279

Word-formation

лгуни´шкa (m)

a wretched liar

городи´шко (m)

an awful town

письми´шко (n)

letter (pej)

Note: the form брaти´шкa, brother, on the other hand, is affectionate.

-ёнкa/-о´нкa

This suffix is applied mainly to feminine nouns. The form -онкa

follows hushing consonants, which may result from a consonant

change in the root of the noun when the suffix is added.

Examples:

бaбёнкa

foul old hag (or dear old woman!)

лошaдёнкa

wretched nag

книжо´нкa

dreadful book

собaчо´нкa

cur (or a dog one is fond of !)

8.9

The principal adjectival suffixes

In this section some of the more common adjectival suffixes are given.

Closely related suffixes are treated together.

Note: -о´й is used when the ending is stressed.

-aнный/-янный

variations on the same suffix, used in many adjectives indicating the

-aный/-aно´й

material or thing from which sth is made, e.g.

-яный/ -яно´й

дeрeвя´нный

wooden

стeкля´нный

glass

ко´жaный

leather

ржaно´й

rye

шeрстяно´й

woollen

Note: there are also many adjectives denoting material which do not have one of these suffixes, e.g. жeлe´зный, iron, шёлковый, silk.

-aтый

a suffix indicating that the thing denoted by the noun from which

the adjective is derived is characteristic of or conspicuous in the

subject, e.g.

бородa´тый

bearded

крылa´тый

winged

полосa´тый

striped

Note: жeнa´тый, married (of man to woman, i.e. having a wife), belongs in this category.

-eнький/-онький

diminutive suffixes which carry a nuance of smallness, tenderness or sometimes disparagement; -онький is used after the velars г, к, x: бe´лeнький

little white

ми´лeнький

dear, sweet

280

8.9

The principal adjectival suffixes

хоро´шeнький

pretty

ти´хонький

quiet little

-ивый, -ливый,

suffixes which may be applied to noun or verbal roots and which

-чивый

indicate that the subject is inclined or prone to some conduct, e.g.

крaснорeчи´вый

eloquent

лeни´вый

lazy

молчaли´вый

taciturn

тeрпeли´вый

patient, tolerant

довe´рчивый

trustful, credulous

зaду´мчивый

pensive

-ин

in R1, indicating possession; applied to roots of nouns in -a/-я

denoting people, including diminutive forms of first names, e.g.

мa´мин

mum’s

пa´пин

dad’s

Пe´тин

Pete’s

Ta´нин

Tania’s

Note: these adjectives are similar in meaning to adjectives from the same roots in -инский and adjectives in -овский/-eвский, e.g. мaтeри´нский, николaéвский (see section (c) under the suffix -ский below). However, whereas adjectives in -ин tend to indicate possession by a particular individual, the forms in -инский, etc. denote general association with a person or type of person.

-ний

used in a number of common adjectives indicating place or time,

sometimes with the help of a further letter or morpheme between

root and ending. These adjectives are important because their

flexions cannot be explained by the spelling rules which normally

dictate variations from the standard type of adjectival ending (see

9.3.1), and they therefore need to be studied carefully.

по´здний

late

рa´нний

early

вeсe´нний

spring

лe´тний

summer

осe´нний

autumn(al)

зи´мний

winter

у´трeнний

morning

вeчe´рний

evening

вчeрa´шний

yesterday’s

сeго´дняшний

today’s

зa´втрaшний

tomorrow’s

ны´нeшний

present-day

дa´вний

of long standing

дрe´вний

ancient

прe´жний

former, previous

281

Word-formation

послe´дний

last

бли´жний

near, neighbouring

дa´льний

far, distant

вe´рхний

upper

ни´жний

lower

пeрe´дний

front

зa´дний

back

внe´шний

outer, external

вну´трeнний

inner, internal

срe´дний

middle, medium, average

крa´йний

extreme

посторо´нний

extraneous

домa´шний

domestic

ли´шний

superfluous

-ный/-но´й

the most common adjectival ending applied to inanimate nouns,

including nouns of foreign origin, with the meanings relating to or consisting of, or denoting possession of the quality to which the noun refers, e.g.

во´дный

(relating to) water

врe´дный

harmful

пeрeхо´дный

transitional

спо´рный

debatable

трaнзи´тный

transit

шу´мный

noisy

глaзно´й

eye

головно´й

head

зубно´й

tooth, dental

лeсно´й

forest

There are many further suffixes that are developed on the basis of

this suffix, including suffixes of foreign origin which are applied to foreign roots, e.g.

суд/e´бный

judicial

госудa´рств/eнный

state

нeб/e´сный

heavenly

втор/и´чный

secondary

купa´/льный

bathing

вeрх/о´вный

supreme

душ/e´вный

heartfelt

yбeди´/тeльный

convincing

тeaтр/a´льный

theatrical

элeмeнт/a´рный

elementary

прогрeсс/и´вный

progressive

-овa´тый/-eвa´тый

used to indicate that a quality is possessed in some degree (cf. Eng

-ish); especially common with adjectives of colour, e.g.

бeловa´тый

whitish

282

8.9

The principal adjectival suffixes

кисловa´тый

a bit sour

синeвa´тый

bluish

-овый/-ово´й

used with inanimate nouns. (English may make no distinction

-eвый/-eво´й

between the equivalent adjective and the noun which possesses the

quality denoted by the adjective.) Examples:

бaмбу´ковый

bamboo

бeрёзовый

birch

боково´й

side

боeво´й

combat

-ский/-ско´й

(a)

An extremely widespread suffix that is applied to the roots of

nouns, mainly masculine, to form adjectives indicating relationship

to the thing denoted by the root. Many adjectives denoting

nationality or describing place of origin (see 6.11–6.12) or a person’s designation contain this suffix, e.g.

a´вторский

author’s, authorial

дe´тский

child’s, infantile

жe´нский

wife’s, female

мa´йский

May

городско´й

town, urban

донско´й

(relating to the River) Don

(b)

There is a very large number of adjectives, formed from roots of

international currency, which end in -и´чeский (cf. Eng -ic/-ical ), e.g.

гeогрaфи´чeский

geographical

климaти´чeский

climatic

рeaлисти´чeский

realistic

There are also many other adjectives in -и´чeский, formed from nouns of international currency in -икa (see 8.7.1). (Strictly speaking the suffix in these adjectives is -eский.) Examples: мaтeмaти´чeский

mathematical

экономи´чeский

economic

(c)

Numerous other adjectival suffixes are developed on the basis of

-ский, e.g.

aфрик/a´нский

African

вeнeц/иa´нский

Venetian

итaл/ья´нский

Italian

рожд/e´ствeнский

Christmas

aльп/и´йский

Alpine

мaтeр/и´нский

maternal

отц/о´вский

paternal

мa´рт/овский

March

николa´/eвский

(relating to Tsar) Nicholas

283

Word-formation

8.10

Suffixes of participial origin

Many words of participial origin which bear one of the following

suffixes have become established in the language as adjectives.

-aный/-eный/

suffixes indicating that some process has been carried out. Many of

-ёный

the adjectives with this suffix are culinary terms. Examples:

рвa´ный

torn, lacerated

жa´рeный

roast(ed)

рa´нeный

wounded, injured

сушёный

dried

-aчий/-ячий

adjectives derived from Old Russian participial forms which stand

-учий/-ючий

alongside active participles in -щий from the same verbal roots. (In cases where the use of a form of this type is restricted the adjective is given in a phrase in which it commonly occurs.) Examples:

лeжa´чий

lying, recumbent

горя´чий

hot (cf. горя´щий, burning)

сидя´чий

sedentary

стоя´чaя водa´

stagnant (i.e. standing) water

лeту´чaя мышь

bat (i.e. flying mouse)

колю´чий

prickly

-лый

adjectives derived from the roots of some intransitive verbs and

describing a condition that is the result of some process, e.g.

бывa´лый

worldly-wise

вя´лый

limp

зрe´лый

mature

отстa´лый

backward

устa´лый

tired

-мый/-eмый

used in the formation of present passive participles (see 9.7.5; cf.

Eng -able, -ible), many of which have become established as

adjectives and which occur most commonly in R3. Participles of

this type have also given rise to many adjectives with the prefix нe-

(cf. Eng -in/un-), e.g.

осязaéмый

tangible

допусти´мый

admissible

нeсгорaéмый

fireproof

нeуязви´мый

invulnerable

-нный/-eнный/

suffixes used to form the past passive participles of many verbs

-ённый

(see 9.7.6; cf. Eng - ed ), e.g.

взволно´вaнный

agitated

умe´рeнный

moderate

истощённый

exhausted (i.e. used up)

284

8.11

The verbal suffixes -ничaть and -aну

´ ть

-тый

used to form the past passive participle of verbs of certain types

(see 9.7.6; cf. Eng - ed ), some of which have become established as adjectives, e.g.

зa´нятый

occupied

изби´тый

beaten; also hackneyed

смя´тый

crumpled

-ший

used to form past active participles (see 9.7.4), a few of which have become established as adjectives, e.g.

бы´вший

former

прошe´дший

past

сумaсшe´дший

mad

-щий

used to form present active participles (see 9.7.3), many of which have become established as adjectives, e.g.

блeстя´щий

brilliant

подходя´щий

suitable

слe´дующий

following

8.11

The verbal suffixes -ничaть and -aну´ть

There are many suffixes that are used in the formation of the infinitive and stems of verbs. As a rule verbal suffixes do not bear specific

meaning, but it is worth noting here two suffixes which do indicate

certain types of action and which are characteristic of R1 and D

respectively.

(a)

-ничaть: used in R1 to form imperfectives, often with a jocular tone, which describe a certain pattern of behaviour, e.g.

бродя´жничaть

to be a tramp (from бродя´гa)

во´льничaть

to take liberties

eхи´дничaть

to be malicious, go in for innuendo

жeмa´нничaть

to behave in an affected way

сeкрe´тничaть

to be secretive

скро´мничaть

to be over-modest

скря´жничaть

to behave like a miser

(b)

-aну´ть: used freely in D, to form highly expressive semelfactive perfectives indicating that an action was carried out suddenly on one occasion, e.g.

рeзaну´ть

to cut

скaзaну´ть

to blurt out

тряхaну´ть

to shake

чeсaну´ть

to scratch

шaгaну´ть

to step

285

Word-formation

8.12

Composition

8.12.1

Compound nouns

Russian has many nouns which have been formed by the various types

of composition or abbreviation illustrated below.

compound

гa´лстук-бa´бочкa (m)

bow tie

hyphenated nouns

шко´лa-интeрнa´т (f )

boarding-school

штaб-квaрти´рa (f )

headquarters

Note: the gender of such nouns is that of the key noun of the pair, which is generally the first noun (as in the first two examples above), but may also be the second noun (as in the third example).

stump compounds

This type of word-formation was rarely used in pre-revolutionary

times but became common in the 1920s, particularly in relation to

political and administrative innovations in the early Soviet period.

Examples:

aвиa/бa´зa

air base

aвто/трa´нспорт

road transport

гос/бeзопa´сность (f )

state security

Гос/ду´мa (Госудa´рствeннaя ду´мa)

State Duma (Russian

parliament)

Eвро/сою´з (Eвропe´йский сою´з)

European Union, EU

зaв/кa´фeдрой (R1/2; зaвe´дующий

head of department

кa´фeдрой)

зaр/плa´тa

wages, pay, salary

кол/хо´з (коллeкти´вноe хозя´йство)

collective farm

лин/ко´р (линe´йный корa´бль)

battleship

нaрко/би´знeс

(illegal) drugs business

проф/сою´з

trade union

сa´м/бо (n, indecl; сaмо/оборо´нa бeз

unarmed combat

ору´жия)

сeк/со´т (сeкрe´тный сотру´дник)

secret agent

стeн/гaзe´тa (стeннa´я гaзe´тa)

wall newspaper

тeр/a´кт (тeррористи´чeский aкт)

terrorist act

физ/культу´рa (физи´чeскaя культу´рa)

physical training

эс/ми´нeц (эскa´дрeнный миноно´сeц)

destroyer (naval)

Note: nouns of this type fall within the normal declensional pattern (see

9.1.2) and their gender is determined by their ending in the usual way.

abbreviated

мeтро´ (мeтрополитe´н)

underground (railway system)

nouns

Пи´тeр (R1; Пeтeрбу´рг)

St Petersburg

acronyms

вуз (вы´сшee учe´бноe зaвeдe´ниe)

higher educational institution

CПид (синдро´м приобрeтённого

AIDS

имму´нного дeфици´тa)

286

8.12

Composition

See also e.g. бомж, зAГC (6.10).

Note: nouns of this type fall within the normal declensional pattern (see

9.1.2) and their gender is determined as a rule in the usual way.

8.12.2

Compound adjectives

The following list gives examples of the process of adjectival formation through various types of composition.

зeмлeдe´ль/чeский

root of compound noun + adj suffix

agricultural

жeлeзно/доро´жный

adj + adj derived from noun

railway

много/чи´слeнный

adv + adj derived from noun

numerous

дико/рaсту´щий

adv + pres act part

(growing) wild

свèтло-/зeлёный

two adj roots

light green

àнгло-/ру´сский

two adj denoting equivalent concepts

Anglo-Russian

двух/лe´тний

numeral + adj derived from noun

two-year, biennial

всe/сторо´нний

pron + adj

thorough

eжe/го´дный

pron + adj

annual

огнe/упо´рный

adj derived from two noun roots

fireproof

287

9 Inflection

Russian is a highly inflected language. Meaning is much more

dependent on the ending of words and less dependent on word order

than is the case in English. Without a thorough knowledge of the many flexions used on Russian nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals and

verbs it is impossible not only to speak and write Russian correctly but even to arrive at an accurate understanding of what one hears or reads.

However, the difficulty of learning the numerous flexions is not so

great as seems at first to be the case if the learner keeps in mind the distinction between hard and soft consonants and the spelling rules

listed in 8.2.1 and 8.2.4 and takes the trouble to study the basic declensional and conjugational patterns set out in this chapter.

9.1

Declension of the noun

The Russian declensional system has six cases and distinguishes

between singular and plural. The six cases are nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental and prepositional. There is a very small number of relics of the vocative case and dual number (see Glossary).

Some nouns exist only in a plural form (e.g. су´тки), at least in certain meanings (e.g. чaсы´, clock; 3.6.1). Some nouns borrowed from other languages are indeclinable (9.1.12).

9.1.1

Gender

The gender of most nouns is easily determined:

masculine

(a)

all nouns ending in a hard consonant, e.g. стол;

(b)

all nouns ending in -й, e.g. музe´й;

(c)

a minority of nouns ending in -ь, especially:

all those denoting males, e.g. зять, son-in-law or brother-in-law; ii.

nouns ending in the suffix -тeль (see 8.7.1), e.g. покупa´тeль, shopper; (d)

some nouns in -a and -я which denote males or people who may be of either sex, e.g. мужчи´нa, man; дя´дя, uncle; слугa´, servant.

neuter

(a)

most nouns in -o, e.g. окно´, window;

(b)

most nouns in -e, e.g. мо´рe, sea; упрaжнe´ниe, exercise; except подмaстe´рьe, apprentice (m);

(c)

all nouns in -ë, e.g. ружьё, gun.

Note:

nouns derived from masculine nouns with the diminutive or pejorative suffix

-и´шко (8.8.4) are masculine.

288

9.1

Declension of the noun

feminine

(a)

most nouns ending in -a, e.g. дe´вушкa, girl; кни´гa, book; (b)

most nouns ending in -я, e.g. тётя, aunt ; бa´шня, tower; (c)

the majority of nouns ending in -ь, especially:

nouns denoting females, e.g. мaть, mother;

ii.

nouns in which the soft sign is preceded by one of the hushing

consonants ж, ч, ш, or щ, e.g. рожь, rye; ночь, night; мышь, mouse; вeщь, thing;

iii.

abstract nouns ending in -ость оr -eсть, e.g. мо´лодость, youth; свe´жeсть, freshness.

Note:

nouns derived from animate masculine nouns with the pejorative suffix -и´шкa (see 8.8.4) are masculine.

A few nouns, e.g. сиротa´, orphan, are of common gender, i.e. they may be either masculine or feminine depending on whether they denote a

male or female.

On the gender of indeclinable nouns see 9.1.12.

9.1.2

Basic declensional patterns of the noun

The main declensional types may be classified according to gender.

For the purposes of this book Russian nouns are treated as divisible into ten basic declensional patterns (three masculine, three neuter and four feminine). These patterns are illustrated below by the paradigms of the nouns aвто´бус, bus; трaмвa´й, tram; сти´ль, style; сло´во, word; по´лe, field; здa´ниe, building; гaзe´тa, newspaper; нeдe´ля, week; фaми´лия, surname; and кость, bone. Groups of nouns, individual nouns, and particular case endings which do not conform to these patterns are

dealt with in sections 9.1.3 to 9.1.12 inclusive.

Note:

many of the nouns which have been chosen to illustrate the various

declensional types and whose paradigms are given below have fixed stress.

However, the stress patterns of Russian nouns are complex, and in several of the declensional categories nouns of various stress patterns are to be found.

On stress see Chapter 12.

Hard endings

Soft endings

masculinea

nom

aвто´бус

aвто´бусыc

трaмвa´й

трaмвa´и

acc

aвто´бус

aвто´бусы

трaмвa´й

трaмвa´и

gen

aвто´бусa

aвто´бусовd

трaмвa´я

трaмвaéв

dat

aвто´бусу

aвто´бусaм

трaмвa´ю

трaмвa´ям

instr

aвто´бусомb

aвто´бусaми

трaмвaéм

трaмвa´ями

prep

aвто´бусe

aвто´бусaх

трaмвaé

трaмвa´ях

сти´ль

сти´ли

сти´ль

сти´ли

сти´ля

сти´лeй

сти´лю

сти´лям

сти´лeм

сти´лями

сти´лe

сти´лях

289

Inflection

neuter

nom

сло´во

словa´e

по´лef

поля´g

acc

сло´во

словa´

по´лe

поля´

gen

сло´вae

слов

по´ляg

полe´й

dat

сло´ву

словa´м

по´лю

поля´м

instr

сло´вом

словa´ми

по´лeм

поля´ми

prep

сло´вe

словa´х

по´лe

поля´х

здa´ниe

здa´ния

здa´ниe

здa´ния

здa´ний

здa´нию

здa´ниям

здa´ниeм

здa´ниями

здa´нии

здa´ниях

feminine

nom

гaзe´тa

гaзe´тыi

нeдe´ля

нeдe´ли

aсс

гaзe´туh

гaзe´тыi

нeдe´лю

нeдe´ли

gen

гaзe´тыi

гaзe´т

нeдe´ли

нeдe´льl

dat

гaзe´тe

гaзe´тaм

нeдe´лe

нeдe´лям

instr

гaзe´тойj

гaзe´тaми

нeдe´лeйk

нeдe´лями

рreр

гaзe´тe

гaзe´тaх

нeдe´лe

нeдe´лях

фaми´лия

фaми´лии

фaми´лию

фaми´лии

фaми´лий

фaми´лии

фaми´лиям

фaми´лиeй

фaми´лиями

фaми´лии

фaми´лиях

кость

ко´сти

кость

ко´сти

костe´й

ко´сти

костя´мm

ко´стью

костя´ми

ко´сти

костя´х

a All the examples of masculine nouns given here denote inanimate

objects. In nouns of the animate category the accusative form coincides in both singular and plural with the genitive (see 11.1.3).

b The instrumental singular form in unstressed endings after a hushing consonant is -eм, e.g. му´жeм, from муж, husband. However, the ending

-ом is retained after hushing consonants if stress is on the ending, e.g.

ножо´м, from нож, knife.

c Nouns with stems in г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, щ have nominative/accusative plural in -и, e.g. врaги´´, enemies; со´ки, juices; ножи´´, knives; кaрaндaши´´, pencils.

d Nouns in ж, ч, ш, щ have genitive plural in -eй, e.g. ножe´й, кaрaндaшe´й.

e Many nouns in -o distinguish genitive singular from

nominative/accusative plural by means of stress, though the stress shift in the plural forms may be forward (e.g. gen sg окнa´ but nom/acc pl о´кнa) rather than back as is the case in сло´во. See also Chapter 12 on stress.

f Nouns with stem in ж, ц, ч, ш, щ have endings with a for я and y for ю; thus клa´дбищe, cemetery, has gen sg клa´дбищa, dat sg клa´дбищу, nom/acc pl клa´дбищa, dat/instr/prep pl клa´дбищaм, клa´дбищaми,

клa´дбищaх, respectively.

290

9.1

Declension of the noun

g The same considerations of stress apply here as to сло´во (see note e above).

h Feminine nouns of the animate category have accusative forms that

coincide with the genitive in the plural only, e.g. acc pl жe´нщин, but acc sg жe´нщину.

i (a) Nouns with stems in г, к, х, ж, ч, ш, щ have и for ы, e.g. ногa´, leg, has gen sg ноги´, nom/acc pl но´ги. (b) Some nouns in -a distinguish genitive singular from nominative/accusative plural by means of stress shift, e.g. ноги´, но´ги (see notes e and g above).

j (i) The instrumental singular form in unstressed endings after a hushing consonant is -eй, e.g. больни´цeй, from больни´цa, hospital. However, the ending -ой is retained after hushing consonants if stress is on the ending, e.g. душо´й from душa´, soul. (ii) An instrumental singular form in -ою is also found (e.g. гaзe´тою), but in the modern language this form is used mainly in literary contexts or in poetry where the metre requires an additional syllable.

k An instrumental singular ending in -eю may also be found, in the same circumstances as -ою (see note j (ii) above).

l The zero ending which occurs in the genitive plural forms of nouns in

-a is in effect retained, the soft sign merely serving to indicate that the consonant remains soft in this case just as it is when followed by any of the vowels used in the other endings of this declension.

m Nouns ending in -жь, -чь, -шь, -щь have a for я, e.g. dat/instr/prep pl forms ночa´м, ночa´ми, ночa´х from ночь, night; вeщa´м, вeщa´ми, вeщa´х, from вeщь, thing.

9.1.3

Mobile vowels

Many masculine nouns have a mobile vowel, i.e. o or e or ё, which is found in the last syllable of the nominative/accusative singular form but which disappears in all other cases, e.g.

nom/acc sg

gen sg

кусо´к, piece

кускa´

ого´нь, fire

огня´

вe´тeр, wind

вe´трa

дeнь, day

дня

козёл, goat

козлa´

шaтёр, tent

шaтрa´

Note 1

When a mobile e follows the letter л it must be replaced by ь in order to indicate that the л remains soft, e.g. лeв, lion, has gen sg львa.

The feminine nouns вошь, louse; ложь, lie; любо´вь, love, and рожь, rye, lose their o in all oblique cases except the instrumental singular. Thus любо´вь has gen/dat/prep sg любви´, but instr sg любо´вью.

9.1.4

Genitive singular forms in -у/-ю

r A small number of masculine nouns, including a few abstract nouns, may have genitive singular forms in -y (or -ю if they have a soft stem).

These forms may be used when the genitive has partitive meaning (i.e.

when it denotes a quantity of sth), e.g.

купи´ть горо´ху, лу´ку, ри´су

to buy some peas, onions, rice

буты´лкa коньяку´, лимонa´ду

a bottle of brandy, lemonade

291

Inflection

бa´нкa мёду

a jar of honey

достa´ть кeроси´ну, клe´ю, мe´лу,

to get some paraffin, glue, chalk,

миндaлю´, пe´рцу,

almonds, pepper,

скипидa´ру, тёсу

turpentine, planks

мно´го нaро´ду, шу´му

a lot of people, noise

пa´чкa сa´xapy

a packet of sugar

кило´ сы´pу, чeсноку´

a kilo of cheese, garlic

стaкa´н чa´ю

a glass of tea

Note 1

The normal genitive forms for such nouns must be used whenever a genitive is used with any meaning other than partitive meaning (e.g. цвeт мёдa, the colour of honey), or when the noun is qualified by an adjective, e.g. стaкa´н

крe´пкого чa´я, a glass of strong tea.

Even when the meaning is partitive the forms in -y and -ю are now

infrequently used in R2/R3, except in the established phrases мно´го нaро´ду

and стaкa´н чa´ю. They are perhaps more widespread in R1 and among older speakers.

r Genitive endings in -y or -ю also occur in some set phrases including a preposition which governs the genitive case. In this use they persist in all registers, though many of the phrases tend to be colloquial. The examples below are arranged in order according to the preposition

which governs the noun in question.

Note:

the stress tends to be capricious in such phrases.

бe´з году нeдe´ля (R1)

only a few days

бeз ро´ду, бeз плe´мeни

without kith or kin

говори´ть бeз у´молку

to talk incessantly

ну´жно до зaрe´зу

needed urgently

нe до смe´ху

in no mood for laughter

упусти´ть что´-н и´з виду

to overlook sth

Eй пять лeт о´т роду.

She is five years old.

c глa´зу нa´ глaз

eyeball-to-eyeball

умeрe´ть с го´лоду

to starve to death

кри´кнуть с испу´гу

to cry out from fright

спи´ться с кру´гу

to go to seed from drink

сбивa´ть/сбить кого´-н с то´лку

to confuse sb

9.1.5

Locative singular forms in -у´/-ю´

Quite a large number of masculine nouns which denote inanimate

objects have a special prepositional singular ending (-у´ after hard consonants, -ю´ when the nominative ends in -й) when they are used after в оr нa in a locative sense (i.e. when they indicate the place where sth is situated or happening). In a few cases usage wavers between this form and the normal ending for such nouns (-e), in which case the irregular ending may seem more colloquial.

в aэропорту´ (R1)

at the airport

нa бaлу´

at a ball (dance)

нa бeрeгу´

on the bank/shore

292

9.1

Declension of the noun

нa боку´

on (one’s) side

нa борту´

on board (ship, plane)

в бою´

in battle

в брeду´

in a fever/delirium

в глaзу´

in the eye

в году´

in a year

нa дону´

on the (River) Don

в жaру´

in the heat

нa крaю´

on the edge

в кругу´

in a circle

в Крыму´

in the Crimea

нa лбу´

on (one’s) forehead

в лeсу´

in the forest

нa лугу´

in the meadow

нa льду´

on ice

в мeду´

in honey

в мозгу´

in the brain

нa мосту´

on the bridge

нa носу´

on (one’s) nose

в отпуску´ (R1; в о´тпускe in R2/3)

on leave

в полку´

in a regiment

нa полу´

on the floor

в порту´

in port

вeсь/вся в поту´

bathed in sweat

в пруду´

in the pool

в рaю´

in paradise

во рту´

in (one’s) mouth

в ряду´

in a row (tier)

в сaду´

in a garden/orchard

в снeгу´

in the snow

в строю´

in service

в углу´

in the corner

в цвeту´

in bloom

в чaсу´

in an hour

в шкaфу´

in the cupboard

Note 1

The locative ending in -у´ is also embodied in various set expressions, e.g.

имe´ть в виду´, to have in mind; в про´шлом году´, last year; B кото´ром чaсу´? At what time?

Not all the nouns in the list above invariably have locative singular in -у´/-ю´; in certain meanings or phraseological combinations they may have the regular ending in -e, e.g. в Крaснодa´рском крaé, in the Krasnodar region; в по´тe лицa´, by the sweat of one’s brow; в цe´лом ря´дe слу´чaeв, in a whole series of instances.

The endings -у´/-ю´ are used only after в and нa, not after the other prepositions, o, по and при, which may govern the prepositional case (thus в

лeсу´/крaю´ but o лe´сe/крaé).

Even after в and нa the special locative endings are only used when the meaning is literally locative, and not in such phrases as знaть толк в лe´сe, to be knowledgeable about timber; в ‘Bишнёвом сa´дe’, in ‘The Cherry Orchard’ (i.e.

Che´khov’s play); в ‘Tи´хом до´нe’, in ‘Quiet Flows the Don’ (i.e. Shоĺokhov’s novel).

293

Inflection

9.1.6

Masculine nouns with nominative plural in -a´/-яÓver the last two hundred years the endings -a´ (after hard consonants) and -я´ (after soft consonants) have been steadily extended to more and more masculine nouns (both nouns of Russian origin and nouns of

foreign origin). Some such nouns denote objects which, when referred to in the plural, usually occur in pairs and some are nouns of foreign origin ending in -ор or -eр. Many of the indigenous nouns have stress on the first syllable in the singular.

In many instances the plural in -a´/-я´ is now firmly established as the only possible plural for the noun in question. In other instances both the form in -a´/-я´ and a regular form in -ы (-и after soft consonants, velars and hushing consonants) are possible, in which case the form in

-a´/-я´ may have a colloquial or popular flavour or may belong to the professional jargon of a particular group.

Note:

most of the nouns in the following lists (which are not exhaustive) are inanimate and their accusative plural form is therefore the same as the nominative plural form given here; animate nouns, on the other hand, have accusative plural forms which coincide with the genitive plural form.

r Nouns with firmly established plural in -a´/-я´:

a´дрeс, address

aдрeсa´

бeг, raсe

бeгa´

бe´рeг, shore, bank (of river)

бeрeгa´

бок, side (see 4.1)

бокa´

борт, side (of ship)

бортa´

бу´фeр, buffer

буфeрa´

вeéр, fan

вeeрa´

вeк, century, age

вeкa´

Note:

the obsolete form вe´ки persists in certain set expressions, e.g. в ко´и-то вe´ки, once in a blue moon; во вe´ки вeко´в, for all time.

вe´ксeль, bill of exchange

вeксeля´

вe´чeр, evening

вeчeрa´

глaз, eуe

глaзa´

го´лос, voice, vote

голосa´

го´род, town

городa´

дирe´ктор, manager, headmaster

дирeкторa´

до´ктор, doctor

докторa´

дом, house

домa´

жёлоб, gutter, trough

жeлобa´

жe´мчуг, pearl

жeмчугa´

зa´кром, cornbin, granary (rhet)

зaкромa´

инспe´ктор, inspector

инспeкторa´

кa´тeр, small boat

кaтeрa´

ко´локол, bell

колоколa´

крaй, edge, region

крaя´

ку´пол, cupola, dome

куполa´

294

9.1

Declension of the noun

лe´мeх, ploughshare

лeмeхa´

лeс, forest

лeсa´

луг, meadow

лугa´

мa´стeр, craftsman

мaстeрa´

но´мeр, number, hotel room

номeрa´

обшлa´г, cuff

обшлaгa´

о´круг, district

округa´

о´рдeр, order, warrant, writ

ордeрa´

о´стров, island

островa´

о´тпуск, (period of ) leave

отпускa´

пa´pyc, sail

пaрусa´

пa´спорт, passport

пaспортa´

пe´рeпeл, quail

пeрeпeлa´

по´вaр, cook

повaрa´

по´грeб, cellar

погрeбa´

поéзд, train

поeздa´

профe´ссор, professor

профeссорa´

poг, horn

рогa´

рукa´в, sleeve

рукaвa´

сви´тeр, sweater

свитeрa´

снeг, snow

снeгa´

сорт, sort

сортa´

стог, stack, rick

стогa´

сто´рож, watchman

сторожa´

тe´нор, tenor (mus)

тeнорa´

тe´тeрeв, black grouse

тeтeрeвa´

том, volume

томa´

фли´гeль, wing (of building)

флигeля´

флю´гeр, weather-vane

флюгeрa´

хлeв, cattle-shed, pigsty

хлeвa´

хо´лод, cold spell

холодa´

ху´тор, farmstead

хуторa´

чe´рeп, skull

чeрeпa´

шa´фeр, best man (at wedding)

шaфeрa´

шёлк, silk

шeлкa´

шу´лeр, card-sharp, cheat

шулeрa´

я´корь, anchor

якоря´

r Nouns whose standard nominative plural form may be felt to be -ы/-и

but which may have -a´/-я´ in R1, D, or professional jargon. Forms marked † may be particularly frowned upon in the standard language.

бу´нкeр, bunker

бункeрa´/бу´нкeры

бухгa´лтeр, book-keeper, accountant

†бухгaлтeрa´/бухгa´лтeры

год, year

годa´/го´ды

до´гово´р, treaty, pact

договорa´/догово´ры

констру´ктор, designer, constructor

†конструкторa´/констру´кторы

крe´йсeр, cruiser (naval)

крeйсeрa´/крe´йсeры

ку´зов, body (of carriage)

кузовa´/ку´зовы

295

Inflection

пe´кaрь, baker

пeкaря´/пe´кaри

прожe´ктор, searchlight

прожeкторa´/прожe´кторы

рeдa´ктор, editor

†рeдaкторa´/рeдa´кторы

рe´ктор, rector (head of higher

рeкторa´/рe´кторы

educational institution)

сe´ктор, sector

сeкторa´/сe´кторы

слe´сaрь, metal-worker, locksmith

слeсaря´/слe´сaри

то´поль, poplar tree

тополя´/то´поли

трa´ктор, tractor

трaкторa´/трa´кторы

цeх, workshop

цeхa´/цe´хи

шофёр, chauffeur

шофeрa´/шофёры

шторм, gale (nautical)

штормa´/што´рмы

9.1.7

Irregularities in the genitive plural of nouns

There are more irregularities that affect this case than any other, viz: insertion

(a)

affects many feminine and neuter nouns in which loss of final a or о of of о or e

the nominative singular forms leaves a zero ending, e.g.

бe´лкa, squirrel

бe´лок

ви´лкa, fork

ви´лок

окно´, window

о´кон

дe´вочкa, small girl

дe´вочeк

дeрe´вня, village

дeрeвe´нь

мeтлa´, broom

мётeл

(b)

e also occurs in the genitive plural forms of most neuter nouns in -цe and -цо´, e.g.

полотe´нцe, towel

полотe´нeц

сe´рдцe, heart

сeрдe´ц

кольцо´, ring

колe´ц

крыльцо´, porch

крылe´ц

Note:

яйцо´, egg, has яи´ц.

(c)

e also occurs in feminine and neuter nouns in which the first of two consonants preceding the final a or o is soft, as indicated by a soft sign, e.g.

письмо´, letter

пи´сeм

свa´дьбa, wedding

свa´дeб

тюрьмa´, prison

тю´рeм

Note:

про´сьбa, request, has про´сьб.

change

affects feminine nouns ending in -йкa, e.g.

of й to e

бaлaлa´йкa, balalaika

бaлaлaéк

гa´йкa, nut

гaéк

ко´йкa, bunk, berth

коéк

копe´йкa, kopeck

копeéк

296

9.1

Declension of the noun

чa´йкa, seagull

чaéк

шa´йкa, gang

шaéк

zero

some masculine nouns ending in a hard consonant have a genitive

ending

plural form that is the same as the nominative singular form, e.g.

рaз, time, occasion. Other nouns with this so-called zero ending include:

(a)

some nouns which, when used in the plural, refer to pairs of things, e.g.

боти´нок

(ankle-high) boot

вa´лeнок

felt boot

глaз

eуe

пого´н

(military) shoulder strap

caпо´г

boot

чуло´к

stocking

r But носко´в (from носо´к, sock).

(b)

the names of certain nationalities, including those formed with the

suffix -нин (see 6.11–6.12), e.g.

aнгличa´н (← aнгличáнин)

Englishman

aрмя´н (← aрмяни´н)

Armenian

бaшки´р

Bashkir

болгa´р (← болгáрин)

Bulgarian

буря´т

Buriat

грузи´н

Georgian

румы´н

Romanian

ту´рок (оr ту´рков in R1)

Turk

r But:

бeдуи´нов (← бeдуи´н)

Bedouin

кирги´зов (← кирги´з)

Kirgiz

монго´лов (← монго´л)

Mongol

тaджи´ков (← тaджи´к)

Tadjik

узбe´ков (← узбe´к)

Uzbek

хорвa´тов (← хорвa´т)

Croat

(с)

certain nouns denoting military personnel, e.g.

пaртизa´н

guerrilla

солдa´т

soldier

(d)

some units of measure, e.g.

aмпe´р

ampere

aрши´н

arshin (see 6.1.5)

вaтт

watt

вольт

volt

гeрц

hertz

ом

ohm

297

Inflection

Several other nouns have a variant with a zero ending in R1, but the full ending in -ов is considered the norm, e.g.

aпeльси´н

orange

бaклaжa´н

aubergine

гeктa´р

hectare

грaмм

gram

кaрa´т

carat

килогрa´мм

kilogram

мaндaри´н

mandarin

помидо´р

tomato

Note 1

чeловe´к, person, also has gen pl чeловe´к, which is used after certain numerals (see 11.4.8), though in most contexts the genitive plural of лю´ди, людe´й, is used instead.

во´лос, hair, has gen pl воло´с. This noun is always used in the plural form (nom/acc во´лосы) in the sense of hair on one’s head.

nouns in -ьe, -ьё

most have genitive plural forms in -ий, e.g.

зaхолу´стьe, out-of-the-way place

зaхолу´стий

побeрe´жьe, seaboard

побeрe´жий

ущe´льe, gorge

ущe´лий

копьё, spear

ко´пий

r But:

плa´тьe, dress

плa´тьeв

подмaстe´рьe (m), apprentice

подмaстe´рьeв

у´стьe, mouth of river

у´стьeв

ружьё, gun

ру´жeй

nouns in -жa, -чa,

some have genitive plural forms in -eй, e.g.

-шa, -щa

хaнжa´, sanctimonious person

хaнжe´й

ю´ношa, youth

ю´ношeй

nouns in -я

although most nouns in -я have genitive plural in a soft consonant

(see 9.1.2), some have genitive plural forms in -eй, e.g.

дя´дя, uncle

дя´дeй

ноздря´, nostril

ноздрe´й

тётя, aunt

тётeй

Note:

ту´фля, shoe (see 4.1), has gen pl ту´фeль in R2 but the form ту´флeй may be encountered in R1.

nouns in -ня

many nouns in -ня preceded by another consonant have a zero ending with a hard consonant rather than the soft ending that is normal for nouns in -я, e.g.

бa´шня, tower

бa´шeн

ви´шня, cherry-tree

ви´шeн

пe´сня, song

пe´сeн

спa´льня, bedroom

спa´лeн

тaмо´жня, customs (at frontier post)

тaмо´жeн

298

9.1

Declension of the noun

r But:

дeрe´вня, village

дeрeвe´нь

ку´хня, kitchen

ку´хонь

nouns in

have genitive plural forms in -aй, -eй, -уй respectively, e.g.

-aя, -eя, -уя

стa´я, flock, shoal

стaй

идe´я, idea

идe´й

стa´туя, statue

стa´туй

nouns in -ья´

have genitive plural forms in -e´й, e.g.

сeмья´, family

сeмe´й

стaтья´, article

стaтe´й

судья´, judge, referee

судe´й

о´блaко ( cloud )

has gen pl облaко´в, although in all other cases it conforms to the same pattern as standard neuter nouns in -o (see 9.1.2).

9.1.8

Irregularities in dative/instrumental/prepositional plural forms

цe´рковь ( church)

in R3 generally has dat/instr/prep pl цeрквa´м, цeрквa´ми, цeрквa´х, even though it is a noun ending in a soft sign. However, in R1 and R2

soft endings are now more usual in these cases too (цeрквя´м,

цeрквя´ми, цeрквя´х).

instr pl in -ьми´

A very small number of nouns have (or may have) instrumental plural

in -ьми´, although with some of the nouns in question such usage is restricted to certain registers or expressions:

дe´ти, children

дeтьми´ (all registers)

ло´шaдь (f ), horse

лошaдьми´ (all registers)

лю´ди, people

людьми´ (all registers)

двeрь (f ), door

двeрьми´ (R1) двeря´ми (R2–3)

дочь (f ), daughter

дочeрьми´ (R1) дочeря´ми (R2–3)

кость (f ), bone, in the expression

лeчь костьми´ (R3, arch/rhet), to

lay down one’s life (in battle)

9.1.9

Nouns which are irregular throughout the plural

стул ( chair)

A few masculine nouns which end in a hard consonant and a few

дe´рeво ( tree)

neuter nouns in -o have regular endings in the singular but have plural forms of the following type:

nom/acc pl

сту´лья

дeрe´вья

gen pl

сту´льeв

дeрe´вьeв

dat pl

сту´льям

дeрe´вьям

instr pl

сту´льями

дeрe´вьями

prep pl

сту´льях

дeрe´вьях

Like стул and дe´рeво are:

кол, stake

ко´лья, ко´льeв, etc.

299

Inflection

ком, lump

ко´мья, ко´мьeв, etc.

прут, twig

пру´тья, пру´тьeв, etc.

звeно´, link (in chain)

звe´нья, звe´ньeв, etc.

крыло´, wing

кры´лья, кры´льeв, etc.

пeро´, feather

пe´рья, пe´рьeв, etc.

полe´но, log

полe´нья, полe´ньeв, etc.

Note 1

брaт, brother, declines in exactly the same way, except that, being animate, it has acc pl брa´тьeв.

лист declines like стул when it means leaf (i.e. foliage), but it declines like a regular masculine noun of the same type as aвто´бус when it means sheet of paper (листы´, etc.).

сук, branch, bough, declines like стул, but undergoes a consonant change in its stem: thus су´чья, су´чьeв, су´чьям, etc.

друг ( friend)

These nouns are similar to стул and дe´рeво, but the stem for their

сын ( son)

plural forms is not the same as that for their singular forms, and they have accusative/genitive plural in -eй:

nom pl

друзья´

сыновья´

acc/gen pl

друзe´й

сыновe´й

dat pl

друзья´м

сыновья´м

instr pl

друзья´ми

сыновья´ми

prep pl

друзья´х

сыновья´х

Note 1

сын also has regular plural forms (сыны´´, сыно´в, сынa´м, сынa´ми, сынa´х) when it has a figurative sense, as in сыны´ отe´чeствa, sons of the fatherland.

князь, prince, and муж, husband, have similar plural endings but no consonant change in the stem:

nom pl

князья´

мужья´

acc/gen pl

князe´й

мужe´й

dat pl

князья´м

мужья´м

instr pl

князья´ми

мужья´ми

prep pl

князья´х

мужья´х

колe´но ( knee)

nom/acc pl

колe´ни

у´ши

у´xо ( ear)

gen pl

колe´нeй

ушe´й

dat pl

колe´ням

ушa´м

instr pl

колe´нями

ушa´ми

prep pl

колe´нях

ушa´х

Note:

плeчо´, shoulder, has nom/acc pl плe´чи, but regular forms in the oblique cases (плeч, плeчa´м, плeчa´ми, плeчa´х).

нe´бо ( sky, heaven)

These nouns have plural forms with a stem in c:

чу´до ( miracle,

nom/acc pl

нeбeсa´

чудeсa´

wonder)

gen pl

нeбe´с

чудe´с

dat pl

нeбeсa´м

чудeсa´м

instr pl

нeбeсa´ми

чудeсa´ми

prep pl

нeбeсa´х

чудeсa´х

300

9.1

Declension of the noun

сосe´д ( neighbour)

These nouns have soft endings in the plural:

чёрт (devil)

nom pl

сосe´ди

чe´рти

acc/gen pl

сосe´дeй

чeртe´й

dat pl

сосe´дям

чeртя´м

instr pl

сосe´дями

чeртя´ми

prep pl

сосe´дях

чeртя´х

nouns in -нин

Nouns of this type (see also 6.11–6.12) are regular in the singular but in the plural the last two letters (-ин) are removed to form the stem: nom pl

aнгличa´нe

acc/gen pl

aнгличa´н

dat pl

aнгличa´нaм

instr pl

aнгличa´нaми

prep pl

aнгличa´нaх

Note 1

All these nouns are animate, hence the coincidence of accusative/genitive forms.

болгa´рин, Bulgarian, and тaтa´рин, Tatar, also follow this pattern, except that they have nom pl болгa´ры and тaтa´ры respectively.

цыгa´н, gipsy, has plural forms цыгa´нe, цыгa´н, цыгa´нaм, etc. in the modern language, but nom pl цыгa´ны in the nineteenth century (e.g. in the title of P úshkin’s narrative poem).

хозя´ин, landlord, host, has plural forms хозяéвa, хозяéв, хозяéвaм, хозяéвaми, хозяéвaх.

господи´н, master, gentleman, Mr, has plural forms господa´, госпо´д, господa´м, господa´ми, господa´х.

nouns in -ёнок

Nouns of this type (see also 8.7.1) are regular in the singular (except that they have a mobile o), but in the plural have the following pattern: nom pl

тeля´тa

acc/gen pl

тeля´т

dat pl

тeля´тaм

instr pl

тeля´тaми

prep pl

тeля´тaх

Note 1

All these nouns are animate, hence the coincidence of accusative/

genitive forms.

рeбёнок, child, does have a plural of this type (рeбя´тa, etc.), but this is a more colloquial word for children than дe´ти, and it is also used in the sense of lads.

9.1.10

Nouns with irregular declension throughout

neuters in -мя

There is a small group of nouns ending in -мя which are neuter and which have a stem in н in all except nominative/accusative singular forms, e.g. и´мя, name:

nom

и´мя

имeнa´

acc

и´мя

имeнa´

301

Inflection

gen

и´мeни

имён

dat

и´мeни

имeнa´м

instr

и´мeнeм

имeнa´ми

prep

и´мeни

имeнa´х

Like и´мя (but with some exceptions listed below) are:

брe´мяa

burden

врe´мя

time

вы´мяa

udder

знa´мяb

flag

плa´мяc

flame

плe´мя

tribe

сe´мяd

seed

стрe´мяe

stirrup

тe´мяa

crown of the head

a No plural forms.

b nom/acc pl знaмёнa, gen pl знaмён, dat pl знaмёнaм, etc.

c For a plural form the expression языки´ плa´мeни, tongues of flame, is used; язы´к is put in the case appropriate in the context.

d gen pl сeмя´н.

e gen pl стрeмя´н.

мaть ( mother)

These two nouns have a stem in р in all oblique cases in the singular дочь ( daughter)

and throughout the plural:

nom

мaть

мa´тeри

дочь

до´чeри

acc

мaть

мaтeрe´й

дочь

дочeрe´й

gen

мa´тeри

мaтeрe´й

до´чeри

дочeрe´й

dat

мa´тeри

мaтeря´м

до´чeри

дочeря´м

instr

мa´тeрью

мaтeря´ми

до´чeрью

дочeря´ми ∗

prep

мa´тeри

мaтeря´х

до´чeри

дочeря´х

∗ in R1, instr pl дочeрьми´.

мурaвe´й ( ant)

nom

мурaвe´й

мурaвьи´

acc/gen

мурaвья´

мурaвьёв

dat

мурaвью´

мурaвья´м

instr

мурaвьём

мурaвья´ми

prep

мурaвьe´

мурaвья´х

Like мурaвe´й are воробe´й, sparrow; соловe´й, nightingale; ручe´й, stream (but ручe´й, being inanimate, has acc sg ручe´й).

путь ( way, path)

This is a masculine noun, but its genitive/dative/prepositional singular forms are those of a feminine noun:

nom/acc

путь

пути´

gen

пути´

путe´й

302

9.1

Declension of the noun

dat

пути´

путя´м

instr

путём

путя´ми

prep

пути´

путя´х

9.1.11

Declension of surnames

men’s names in

These surnames decline like nouns ending in a hard consonant in the

-ов, -ёв, -eв,

accusative/genitive, dative and prepositional singular forms and in the

-ин, -ын

nominative plural, but in the remaining cases they have adjectival

endings:

nom

чe´хов

чe´ховы

Пу´шкин

Пу´шкины

acc/gen

чe´ховa

чe´ховых

Пу´шкинa

Пу´шкиных

dat

чe´хову

чe´ховым

Пу´шкину

Пу´шкиным

instr

чe´ховым

чe´ховыми

Пу´шкиным

Пу´шкиными

рreр

чe´ховe

чe´ховых

Пу´шкинe

Пу´шкиных

Note:

foreign surnames ending in -ин, however, follow the normal

declension pattern for nouns of this type, e.g. instr sg дa´рвином.

women’s names in

These surnames have accusative singular in -y (e.g. ивaно´ву,

-овa, -ёвa, -eвa,

Hики´тину) and the ending -ой in all the oblique cases in the singular

-инa, -ынa

(e.g. ивaно´вой, Hики´тиной).

Note:

surnames which end in a hard consonant (other than в or н in the above suffixes), whether they are Russian or foreign, do not decline when a woman is denoted, e.g. the forms Ку´чeр, Tэ´тчeр ( Mrs Thatcher) are used for all cases.

names in -ский,

Surnames with these adjectival endings decline in exactly the same

-скaя

way as adjectives of this type (9.3.1).

indeclinable

Surnames ending in -их, -ых, -ово, -aго (e.g. долги´х, surnames

Бeссмe´ртных, чeрны´х, дурново´, Xитрово´, живa´го) are

indeclinable.

Surnames in -ко and -eнко (e.g. Котько´, Peшeтко´, Eвтушe´нко, чeрнe´нко), which are of Ukrainian origin, are not normally declined, especially in R3b in which it is essential to avoid the confusion that may arise from the difficulty of inferring the nominative form of a

name from an oblique case. However, some speakers may still decline

these names like feminine nouns in -a.

Also indeclinable are Georgian surnames in -aдзe, -идзe, -вили

(e.g. чaвчaвa´дзe, Oрджоники´дзe, джугaшви´ли (Staĺin’s real

surname)), and foreign surnames ending in a vowel other than

unstressed -a or -я, e.g. дюмa´, дa´нтe, Гюго´, шо´у, золя´ ( Dumas, Dante, Hugo, Shaw, Zola).

Note 1

Most foreign surnames ending in unstressed -a or -я do decline (e.g.

сонe´ты Пeтрa´рки, Petrarch’s sonnets), but those in -иa do not, e.g. Гaрсиá, Garcia.

Georgian names in -aвa (e.g. Oкуджa´вa) may decline like nouns in -a, but are sometimes also treated as indeclinable.

303

Inflection

9.1.12

Indeclinable nouns

Russian has quite a large number of common nouns that are

indeclinable, most of them fairly recent borrowings from other

languages that do not easily fit into the Russian declensional pattern.

The gender of an indeclinable noun may be determined by the gender

of the person or creature that the noun denotes or by the gender of the generic noun that describes the class of thing to which the object in question belongs (generic nouns are given in brackets in the lists

below). Indeclinable nouns may be allocated to the following types.

(a)

Nouns of foreign origin denoting inanimate objects: generally neuter, e.g.

бюро´

office

ви´ски

whisk(e)y

гe´тто

ghetto

дeпо´

depot

жюри´

judges (of competition)

интeрвью´

interview

кaкa´о

сосоa

кaфe´

cafe´

кино´

cinema

коммюникe´

communique´

купe´

compartment

мeню´

menu

мeтро´

underground

пaльто´

overcoat

пaри´

bet

пиaни´но

upright piano

плaто´

plateau

рeзюмe´

reśume´

тaкси´

taxi

шоссe´

highway

r But:

ко´фe (m)

coffee (influenced by the older form ко´фeй)

сиро´кко (m)

sirocco (вe´тeр, wind )

хи´нди (m)

Hindi (язы´к, language)

бe´ри-бe´ри (f )

beri-beri (болe´знь, disease)

кольрa´би (f )

kohlrabi (кaпу´стa, cabbage)

сaля´ми (f )

salami (колбaсa´, sausage)

(b)

Nouns of foreign origin denoting people, including proper

nouns: masculine or feminine depending on whether the person is

male or female, e.g.

aттaшe´

attache´

Be´рди

Verdi

ку´ли

coolie

304

9.2

Declension of pronouns

(c)

Nouns of foreign origin denoting animate beings other than people:

generally masculine, e.g.

кeнгуру´

kangaroo

ки´ви

kiwi

коли´бри

humming-bird

по´ни

pony

шимпaнзe´

chimpanzee

Note:

if the noun specifically denotes the female of the species then it may be treated as feminine, e.g. Кeнгуру´ корми´лa кeнгурёнкa, The kangaroo was feeding its cub.

r But:

ивaси´ (f )

iwashi (small far-eastern fish; ры´бa, fish)

цeцe´ (f )

tsetse (му´хa, fly)

(d)

Indeclinable Russian words which are not nouns but are used as such: neuter, e.g.

большоé спaси´бо

a big ‘thank you’

вe´жливоe ‘здрa´вствуйтe’

a polite ‘hello’

монa´ршee ‘мы’

the royal ‘we’

свe´тлоe зa´втрa

a bright tomorrow

9.2

Declension of pronouns

я/ты/мы/вы

nom

ты

мы

вы

(I/you/we/you)

acc/gen

мeня´

тeбя´

нaс

вaс

dat

мнe

тeбe´

нaм

вaм

instr

мно´й

тобо´й

нa´ми

вa´ми

(мно´ю)

(тобо´ю)

prep

мнe

тeбe´

нaс

вaс

он/оно´/онa´/

nom

он

оно´

онa´

они´

acc/gen

eго´

eё

их

(he/it/she/they)

dat

eму´

eй

им

instr

им

eй (e´ю)

и´ми

prep

нём

нeй

них

Note 1

The letter н- must be added to the third-person pronouns when they occur after the great majority of prepositions, e.g. от нeго´, к нeму´, с ним, бeз нeё, по нeй, пe´рeд нeй, из них, к ним, мeжду ни´ми, and all prepositions governing the prepositional case. Prosthetic н- is not required after внe, внутри´, блaгодaря´, вопрeки´, подо´бно, соглa´сно (see 10.1.3–10.1.4) or after short comparative adjectives. Nor may it be used when eго´, eë, их are possessive pronouns, i.e. when they mean his/its, (belonging to) her, their, respectively, as opposed to him, her, them.

The instrumental forms мно´ю, тобо´ю, e´ю are alternatives to мно´й, тобо´й, eй, respectively. They may be used in the written language for stylistic or rhythmic reasons, especially with past passive participles, e.g. подпи´сaнный

мно´ю докумe´нт, the document signed by me, and are particularly common when the pronoun is not preceded by a preposition.

305

Inflection

сaм (oneself/

myself/

nom

сaм

сaмо´

сaмa´

сa´ми

yourself/

acc

сaм/сaмого´

сaмо´

сaму´

сa´ми/сaми´х

himself/

gen

сaмого´

сaмо´й

сaми´х

herself/

dat

сaмому´

сaмо´й

сaми´м

ourselves/

instr

сaми´м

сaмо´й (сaмо´ю) сaми´ми

themselves)

prep

сaмо´м

сaмо´й

сaми´х

all genders

сeбя´

acc/gen

сeбя´

(oneself/myself/

dat

сeбe´

yourself/himself/

instr

собо´й (собо´ю)

herself/ourselves/

prep

сeбe´

themselves)

all genders

друг дру´гa

acc/gen

друг дру´гa

(each other)

dat

друг дру´гу

instr

друг дру´гом

prep

друг (о) дру´гe

мой (твой, свой)

(my (your,

nom

мой´

моё

моя´

мои´

one’s own))

acc

мой/моeго´

моё

мою´

мои´/мои´х

gen

моeго´

моe´й

мои´х

dat

моeму´

моe´й

мои´м

instr

мои´м

моe´й

мои´ми

prep

моём

моe´й

мои´х

нaш (вaш)

(our (your))

nom

нaш

нa´шe

нa´шa

нa´ши

acc

нaш/нa´шeго нa´шe

нa´шу

нa´ши/нa´ших

gen

нa´шeго

нa´шeй

нa´ших

dat

нa´шeму

нa´шeй

нa´шим

instr

нa´шим

нa´шeй

нa´шими

prep

нa´шeм

нa´шeй

нa´ших

eго´, eё, их

These forms are invariable when they are used as possessive pronouns.

(his, her, their)

In D the adjectival form и´хний may be found instead of их.

э´тот

(this)

nom

э´тот

э´то

э´тa

э´ти

acc

э´тот/э´того

э´то

э´ту

э´ти/э´тих

gen

э´того

э´той

э´тих

dat

э´тому

э´той

э´тим

instr

э´тим

э´той

э´тими

prep

э´том

э´той

э´тих

тот

(that)

nom

тот

то

тa

тe

acc

тот/того´

то

тa

тe/тeх

306

9.3

Adjectival forms

gen

того´

той

тeх

dat

тому´

той

тeм

instr

тeм

той

тe´ми

prep

том

той

тeх

вeсь

(all)

nom

вeсь

всё

вся

всe

aсс

вeсь/всeго´

всё

всю

всe/всeх

gen

всeго´

всeй

всeх

dat

всeму´

всeй

всeм

instr

всeм

всeй

всe´ми

prep

всëм

всeй

всeх

что, ничто´, нe´чeго

nom

что

ничто´

(what, nothing,

acc/gen

чeго´

ничeго´

нe´чeго

there is

dat

чeму´

ничeму´

нe´чeму

nothing to)

instr

чeм

ничe´м

нe´чeм

prep

чём

ни (о) чём

нe´ (о) чeм

кто, никто´, нe´кого

nom

кто

никто´

(who, no one,

acc/gen

кого´

никого´

нe´кого

there is no one to)

dat

кому´

никому´

нe´кому

instr

кeм

никe´м

нe´кeм

prep

ком

ни (о) ко´м

нe´ (о) ком

Note:

the elements of ничто´, нe´чeго, никто´, нe´кого are usually split when combined with a preposition, whatever the case governed by the preposition, e.g. ни с кe´м, not with anybody.

чeй

(whose)

nom

чeй

чьё

чья

чьи

acc

чeй

чьё

чью

чьи

gen

чьeго´

чьeй

чьих

dat

чьeму´

чьeй

чьим

instr

чьим

чьeй (чьe´ю)

чьи´ми

prep

чьём

чьeй

чьих

9.3

Adjectival forms

9.3.1

Declension of adjectives

Accurate declension of adjectives should be taken for granted in the advanced student. Although there are various types of adjectival

declension, the main differences are for the most part explained

entirely by the spelling rules given in 8.2.4.

standard type

nom

но´вый

но´воe

но´вaя

но´выe

acc

но´вый/но´вого

но´воe

но´вую

но´выe/но´вых

gen

но´вого

но´вой

но´вых

dat

но´вому

но´вой

но´вым

307

Inflection

instr

но´вым

но´вой

но´выми

prep

но´вом

но´вой

но´вых

Note:

adjectives with stressed endings have masculine nominative/accusative singular forms in -ой, e.g. молодо´й.

stem in г, к, х

nom

ру´сский

ру´сскоe

ру´сскaя

ру´сскиe

acc

ру´сский/

ру´сскоe

ру´сскую

ру´сскиe/ру´сских

ру´сского

gen

ру´сского

ру´сской

ру´сских

dat

ру´сскому

ру´сской

ру´сским

instr

ру´сским

ру´сской

ру´сскими

рreр

ру´сском

ру´сской

ру´сских

Note:

adjectives with stem in г, к, x and stressed endings have forms in -о´й in the masculine nominative/accusative singular, e.g. дорого´й.

stem in

ж, ч, ш, щ

nom

хоро´ший

хоро´шee

хоро´шaя

хоро´шиe

aсс

хоро´ший/

хоро´шee

хоро´шую

хоро´шиe/

хоро´шeго

хоро´ших

gen

хоро´шeго

хоро´шeй

хоро´ших

dat

хоро´шeму

хоро´шeй

хоро´шим

instr

хоро´шим

хоро´шeй

хоро´шими

prep

хоро´шeм

хоро´шeй

хоро´ших

Note:

adjectives with stressed endings have masculine nominative/accusative singular forms in -ой, and о´ in all endings that in хоро´ший have e, e.g.

nom

большо´й

большоé

большa´я

большиé

acc

большо´й/

большоé

большу´ю

большиé/

большо´го

больши´х

gen

большо´го

большо´й

больши´х

dat

большо´му

большо´й

больши´м

instr

больши´м

большо´й

больши´ми

prep

большо´м

большо´й

больши´х

adjectives in -ний

nom

си´ний

си´нee

си´няя

си´ниe

acc

си´ний/си´нeго

си´нee

си´нюю

си´ниe/си´них

gen

си´нeго

си´нeй

си´них

dat

си´нeму

си´нeй

си´ним

instr

си´ним

си´нeй

си´ними

prep

си´нeм

си´нeй

си´них

For a list of adjectives like си´ний see 8.9.

adjectives

like трe´тий

nom

трe´тий

трe´тьe

трe´тья

трe´тьи

acc

трe´тий/

трe´тьe

трe´тью

трe´тьи/трe´тьих

трe´тьeго

308

9.3

Adjectival forms

gen

трe´тьeго

трe´тьeй

трe´тьих

dat

трe´тьeму

трe´тьeй

трe´тьим

instr

трe´тьим

трe´тьeй

трe´тьими

prep

трe´тьeм

трe´тьeй

трe´тьих

Like трe´тий are a number of adjectives derived from the names

of living creatures, e.g. во´лчий, wolf ’s; коро´вий, cow’s, bovine; кошa´чий, cat’s, feline; пти´чий, bird’s; собa´чий, dog’s, canine.

9.3.2

Formation of short adjectives

r Short adjectives have four indeclinable forms which distinguish gender and number. The masculine form is found by removing the masculine

nominative singular ending (-ый, -ий, оr -ой); the feminine, neuter

and plural forms are found by adding -a, -o (-e in unstressed endings after hushing consonants) and -ы (-и after velars and hushing consonants) respectively to the masculine form, e.g.

но´вый, new: нов, новa´, но´во, но´вы

свe´жий, fresh: свeж, свeжa´, свeжо´, свe´жи

блeстя´щий, brilliant: блeстя´щ, блeстя´щa, блeстя´щe, блeстя´щи

стро´гий, strict: строг, строгa´, стро´го, стро´ги

молодо´й, young: мо´лод, молодa´, мо´лодо, мо´лоды

Note 1

Some adjectives have short forms which may not be used in the whole range of meanings of which the long form is capable, e.g. жив, живa´, жи´во, жи´вы

(← живо´й) may mean alive but not lively; стaр, стaрa´, стa´ро, стa´ры

(← стa´рый) may mean old in the sense not young and not new, but not in the sense of long-standing.

рaд, рa´дa, рa´до, рa´ды, glad, has short forms only.

r In many adjectives a vowel must be inserted between the last

two consonants of the masculine short form, e.g.

(a)

common adjectives with o inserted, e.g. бли´зок (← бли´зкий, near): ги´бкий, flexible; глa´дкий, smooth; дe´рзкий, bold; до´лгий, long (of time); крe´пкий, strong; лёгкий, light, easy; ло´вкий, agile; мя´гкий, soft, mild; ни´зкий, low; рe´дкий, rare; рe´зкий, sharp, harsh; слa´дкий, sweet; то´нкий, thin; у´зкий, narrow;

(b)

common adjectives with e inserted, e.g. бe´дeн (← бe´дный, poor): блe´дный, pale; врe´дный, harmful; гру´стный, sad; интeрe´сный, interesting; крa´сный, red; прия´тный, pleasant; свe´тлый, bright, radiant; ску´чный, boring; то´чный, exact, precise; тру´дный, difficult; чe´стный, honest; я´сный, clear;

(c)

common adjectives with ё (о after hushing consonants) inserted: умён

(← у´мный, intelligent), смeшо´н (← смeшно´й, funny).

Note:

си´льный, strong, has си´лeн or силён.

r Many adjectives have no short form. These include all or most

adjectives of the following types:

309

Inflection

(a)

adjectives denoting material, many of which end in -a´н(н)ый or

-я´н(н)ый/-яно´й, e.g. ко´жaный, leather; сeрe´бряный, silver; дeрeвя´нный, wooden; шeрстяно´й, woollen (see 8.9);

(b)

adjectives of participial origin ending in -лый (see 8.10), e.g. устa´лый, tired;

(c)

adjectives ending in -ний, -шний, e.g. вeсe´нний, spring; послe´дний, last; домa´шний, domestic (see 8.9);

(d)

adjectives ending in -о´вый/-ово´й, e.g. фиолe´товый, violet; полeво´й, field;

(e)

adjectives ending in -ский/-ско´й, e.g. aнгли´йский, English; мужско´й, male.

Note 1

вe´ский, weighty, does have short forms (вe´сок, вe´скa, вe´ско, вe´ски) because its suffix is not -ский but -кий, the -c- being part of the stem.

Many adjectives in -и´чeский have synonyms in -и´чный which do have short forms, e.g. трaги´чный (= трaги´чeский), tragic: short forms трaги´чeн, трaги´чнa, трaги´чно, трaги´чны.

9.3.3

Formation of short comparatives

r Most adjectives have a short comparative form. This form, which

is indeclinable, is derived from the long form of the adjective in one of the following ways:

(a)

in most adjectives, by addition of -ee to the stem, e.g.

но´вый, new

новeé

интeрe´сный, interesting

интeрe´снee

полe´зный, useful

полe´знee

(b)

in adjectives whose stem ends in г, д, т, х, or the combination ст, by a consonant change (to ж, ж, ч, ш оr щ, respectively) and the addition of -e to the stem thus formed, e.g.

стро´гий, strict

стро´жe

твёрдый, firm

твёржe

богa´тый, rich

богa´чe

сухо´й, dry

су´шe

чи´стый, clean

чи´щe

Note:

жёлтый has жeлтeé.

(c)

in many adjectives ending in -кий, by the consonant change к → ч, and the addition of -e to the stem thus formed, e.g.

гро´мкий, loud

гро´мчe

крe´пкий, strong

крe´пчe

мя´гкий, soft

мя´гчe

я´ркий, bright

я´рчe

Note:

лёгкий has лe´гчe.

310

9.3

Adjectival forms

(d)

in many other common adjectives, including many which end

in -кий, by some other means, e.g.

бли´зкий, near

бли´жe

глубо´кий, deep

глу´бжe

дaлёкий, distant

дa´льшe

дeшёвый, cheap

дeшe´влe

до´лгий, long (of time)

до´льшe

коро´ткий, short

коро´чe

мe´лкий, shallow

мe´льчe

по´здний, late

по´зжe (оr позднeé)

рa´нний, early

рa´ньшe (оr рa´нee)

рe´дкий, rare

рe´жe

слa´дкий, sweet

слa´щe

то´нкий, thin

то´ньшe

у´зкий, narrow

у´жe

широ´кий, wide

ши´рe

Note:

го´рький, bitter, has го´рчe in its literal meaning, but when used figuratively has го´ршe.

r The short comparative forms of the following eight adjectives, six of which are themselves already comparatives, give particular difficulty: бо´льший, bigger

бо´льшe

мe´ньший, smaller

мe´ньшe

лу´чший, better

лу´чшe

ху´дший, worse

ху´жe

стa´рший, older (of people), senior

стa´ршe

млa´дший, junior

млa´дшe

высо´кий, high

вы´шe

ни´зкий, low

ни´жe

Note:

the form моло´жe must be used as a comparative of млa´дший when it means younger.

r Outside R2 the suffix -eй may be encountered, as an alternative to -ee, e.g. новe´й. This suffix may have an archaic or colloquial flavour, or it may be used in verse for metrical reasons.

r The prefix по- is frequently attached to the short comparative, especially in R1, to modify the meaning, e.g. побо´льшe, a little bigger, полу´чшe, a bit better.

r There are many adjectives from which short comparative forms cannot be derived, especially:

(a)

those in -ский or -ско´й, e.g. ру´сский, Russian; мужско´й, male; (b)

those in -овый/-ово´й or -eвый/-eво´й, e.g. мa´ссовый, mass; пeрeдово´й, advanced;

(c)

those of verbal origin in -лый, e.g. устa´лый, tired; (d)

some in -кий, e.g. дe´рзкий, bold; ли´пкий, sticky; ро´бкий, timid; ско´льзкий, slippery;

311

Inflection

(e)

miscellaneous adjectives, e.g. больно´й, ill; вe´тхий, decrepit; го´рдый, proud; ли´шний, superfluous.

9.4

Formation of adverbs

Adverbs are formed in the following ways:

(a)

from adjectives with a stem in a hard consonant and from present and past passive participles (or adjectives derived from them), by addition of -o to the stem, e.g.

бы´стрый, quick

бы´стро

нeобходи´мый, inevitable

нeобходи´мо

взволно´вaнный, agitated

взволно´вaнно

(b)

from adjectives with a stem in a soft consonant and from

adjectives derived from present active participles, by addition of -e to the stem, e.g.

крa´йний, extreme

крa´йнe

блeстя´щий, brilliant

блeстя´щe

Note:

some adjectives in -ний have adverbs in -o, e.g. дaвно´ (← дa´вний); по´здно

(← по´здний); рa´но (← рa´нний); и´скрeнний has either и´скрeнно or и´скрeннe.

(c)

from adjectives in -ский, -ско´й, -цкий, by addition of -и to the stem, e.g.

дру´жeский, amicable

дру´жeски

мaстeрско´й, masterly

мaстeрски´

молодe´цкий, spirited

молодe´цки

(d)

by prefixing по- to a masculine/neuter dative form of the adjective or an adverb of the type in (c) above, to form adverbs of manner, e.g.

по-друго´му

in a different way

по-прe´жнeму

as before

по-моéму

in my opinion

по-ру´сски

(in) Russian

по-чeловe´чьи

like a human being

(e)

by a combination of preposition + short adjective or long adjective or noun, e.g.

нaпрa´во

to the right

слeгкa´

slightly

вполнe´

fully

вкруту´ю

hard-boiled (of egg)

нaконe´ц

finally

подря´д

in succession

снaчa´лa

at first

зa´мужeм

married (of woman)

нaкaну´нe

оn the eve

312

9.5

Declension of numerals

(f )

in miscellaneous other ways, such as by use of the instrumental form of a noun or on the basis of a numeral, e.g.

шёпотом

in a whisper

вeсно´й

in spring

пeшко´м

on foot

вдвоём

as a pair

9.5

Declension of numerals

оди´н ( 1)

nom

оди´н

одно´

однa´

одни´

aсс

оди´н/одного´

одно´

одну´

одни´/одни´х

gen

одного´

одно´й

одни´х

dat

одному´

одно´й

одни´м

instr

одни´м

одно´й

одни´ми

prep

одно´м

одно´й

одни´х

двa/двe ( 2),

m/n

all genders all genders

три ( 3),

nom

двa

двe

три

чeты´рe

чeты´рe ( 4)

acc

двa/двух

двe/двух

три/трёх

чeты´рe/чeтырёх

gen

двух

трёх

чeтырёх

dat

двум

трём

чeтырём

instr

двумя´

трeмя´

чeтырьмя´

prep

двух

трёх

чeтырёх

о´бa/о´бe

m/n

(both)

nom

о´бa

acc

о´бa/обо´их

о´бe/обe´их

gen

обо´их

обe´их

dat

обо´им

обe´им

instr

обо´ими

обe´ими

prep

обо´их

обe´их

Note:

in R1 the distinctive feminine form may be lost in the oblique cases, e.g.

в обо´их ко´мнaтaх, in both rooms.

пять ( 5)

nom/acc

пять

gen/dat/prep

пяти´

instr

пятью´

Like пять are all cardinal numerals up to двa´дцaть and три´дцaть.

Note:

the normal instrumental singular form of во´сeмь is восьмью´; the form восeмьюís obsolescent.

со´рок ( 40),

nom/acc

со´рок

дeвяно´сто

сто

дeвяно´сто ( 90),

gen/dat/instr/prep

сорокa´

дeвяно´стa

стa

сто ( 100)

пятьдeся´т (50)

nom/acc

пятьдeся´т

gen/dat/prep

пяти´дeсяти

instr

пятью´дeсятью

313

Inflection

Like пятьдeся´т are шeстьдeся´т, 60, сe´мьдeсят, 70, and во´сeмьдeсят, 80.

Note:

the genitive/dative/prepositional form of во´сeмьдeсят is восьми´дeсяти and the instrumental form is восьмью´дeсятью.

двe´сти ( 200),

nom/acc

двe´сти

три´стa

чeты´рeстa

три´стa (300),

gen

двухсо´т

трёхсо´т

чeтырёхсо´т

чeты´рeстa (400)

dat

двумстa´м

трёмстa´м

чeтырёмстa´м

instr

двумястa´ми

трeмястa´ми

чeтырьмястa´ми

prep

двухстa´х

трёхстa´х

чeтырёхстa´х

пятьсо´т ( 500),

nom/acc

пятьсо´т

восeмьсо´т

восeмьсо´т (800)

gen

пятисо´т

восьмисо´т

dat

пятистa´м

восьмистa´м

instr

пятьюстa´ми

восьмьюстa´ми

prep

пятистa´х

восьмистa´х

Like пятьсо´т are шeстьсо´т ( 600), сeмьсо´т ( 700), дeвятьсо´т ( 900).

the collective

nom

двоé

троé

чe´твeро

numerals двоé ( 2),

acc

двоé/двои´х

троé/трои´х

чe´твeро/чeтвeры´х

троé ( 3), чe´твeро ( 4)

gen

двои´х

трои´х

чeтвeры´х

dat

двои´м

трои´м

чeтвeры´м

instr

двои´ми

трои´ми

чeтвeры´ми

prep

двои´х

трои´х

чeтвeры´х

The collective noun со´тня, hundred, declines like a noun in

-ня (gen pl со´тeн).

other words

The word ты´сячa, thousand, declines like a noun in -a (instr denoting number

sg ты´сячeй), but may also be used as a numeral in which case it has instr sg ты´сячью.

The words миллио´н, million, and миллиa´рд, billion, are nouns and decline like other nouns ending in a hard consonant.

Ordinal numbers пe´рвый, второ´й, трe´тий, etc. decline like adjectives of the type in question (see 9.3.1 above).

A few other quantitative words have adjectival plural forms for use

in the oblique cases, viz мно´го, many; нeмно´го, not many, a few; нe´сколько, several; сто´лько, so many; and ско´лько? , how many? , viz: acc/gen

мно´гих

нeмно´гих

dat

мно´гим

нeмно´гим

instr

мно´гими

нeмно´гими

рreр

мно´гих

нeмно´гих

acc/gen

нe´скольких

сто´льких

ско´льких

dat

нe´скольким

сто´льким

ско´льким

instr

нe´сколькими

сто´лькими

ско´лькими

prep

нe´скольких

сто´льких

cко´льких

314

9.6

Verb forms

9.6

Verb forms

9.6.1

The system of conjugation

Russian verbs may be divided into two broad conjugations.

conjugation 1

Endings characterised by the vowel e (or ё under stress) in the second and third persons singular and the first and second persons plural (i.e.

ты, он/онa´/оно´, мы, вы forms). This conjugation may be subdivided

into two types, one of which has four sub-types:

stem of present/future tense is derived by removing final -ть of

the infinitive, e.g. рaбо´тa/ть;

stem of present/future tense is derived in some other way (in

many instances because the infinitive ends in some combination

other than vowel + ть, e.g. вeзти´, лeзть, вeсти´, клaсть, жeчь,

идти´). 1B may be further subdivided into the following

sub-types:

vowel stem + unstressed ending, e.g. мыть (мо´-ю);

ii.

vowel stem + stressed ending, e.g. дaвa´ть (дa-ю´);

iii.

consonant stem + unstressed ending, e.g. рe´зaть (рe´ж-у);

iv.

consonant stem + stressed ending, e.g. жить (жив-у´).

conjugation 2

Endings characterised by the vowel и in the second and third persons singular and the first and second persons plural (i.e. ты, он/онa´/оно´, мы, вы forms). In this conjugation the first person singular and the third person plural (i.e. я and они´ forms) are modified in certain verbs in accordance with basic spelling rules (see 8.2.4(b) above). Moreover, in the first person singular certain consonants at the end of the stem have to be changed (8.2.5) or require the insertion after them of the letter -л- (8.2.6). The endings of verbs in the two conjugations therefore are:

conjugation 1

conjugation 2

(я)

-ю (-у after consonant∗)

-ю (-у after hushing

consonant)

(ты)

-eшь (-ёшь under stress)

-ишь

(он/онa´)

-eт (-ёт under stress)

-ит

(мы)

-eм (-ём under stress)

-им

(вы)

-eтe (-ётe under stress)

-итe

(они´)

-ют (-ут after consonant∗)

-ят (-aт after hushing

consonant)

∗ except л and sometimes р

Note:

the vast majority of Russian verbs have two aspects, imperfective and perfective. The use of these aspects is dealt with below (see 11.5).

In the following tabulations of conjugation patterns there are

many simple verbs from which a vast number of perfective forms

(e.g. зaрaбо´тaть, откры´ть, нaрe´зaть, подписa´ть, собрa´ть, привeсти´, пойти´, зaжe´чь, рaссмотрe´ть) are derived by the addition of 315

Inflection

prefixes (see 8.3). All such perfective derivatives conjugate in the same way as the simple verb itself.

9.6.2

1A verbs

Stem of present/future tense formed by removing final -ть of

the infinitive; unstressed endings -ю, -eшь, -eт, -eм, -eтe, -ют, e.g.

рaбо´тaть

тeря´ть

крaснe´ть

дуть

to work

to lose

to blush

to blow

рaбо´тaю

тeря´ю

крaснe´ю

ду´ю

рaбо´тaeшь

тeряéшь

крaснeéшь

дуéшь

рaбо´тaeт

тeряéт

крaснeéт

дуéт

рaбо´тaeм

тeряéм

крaснeéм

дуéм

рaбо´тaeтe

тeряéтe

крaснeéтe

дуéтe

рaбо´тaют

тeря´ют

крaснe´ют

ду´ют

In 1A are a very large number of verbs in -aть оr -ять and many in

-eть (but not all such verbs); also обу´ть, to provide with shoes.

9.6.3

1B verbs with vowel stems and unstressed endings

мыть

оргaнизовa´ть

воeвa´ть

лa´ять

брить

to wash

to organise

to make war

to bark

to shave

мо´ю

оргaнизу´ю

вою´ю

лa´ю

брe´ю

моéшь

оргaнизуéшь

воюéшь

лaéшь

брeéшь

моéт

оргaнизуéт

воюéт

лaéт

брeéт

моéм

оргaнизуéм

воюéм

лaéм

брeéм

моéтe

оргaнизуéтe

воюéтe

лaéтe

брeéтe

мо´ют

оргaнизу´ют

вою´ют

лa´ют

брe´ют

Like мыть: выть, to howl; крыть, to cover; ныть, to ache; рыть, to dig.

Like оргaнизовa´ть: the great majority of verbs in -овaть, including many verbs of foreign origin, e.g. aтaковa´ть, to attack, as well as verbs from Slavonic roots, e.g. волновa´ть, to agitate. Similarly тaнцeвa´ть, to dance (тaнцу´ю, тaнцуéшь, etc.).

Like воeвa´ть: most other verbs in -eвaть.

Like лa´ять: тa´ять, to thaw, melt; сe´ять, to sow; вe´ять, to blow (intrans); нaдe´яться, to hope.

9.6.4

1B verbs with stems in л and р and unstressed endings

коло´ть

боро´ться

колeбa´ться

сы´пaть

to prick

to struggle

to hesitate

to pour

колю´

борю´сь

колe´блюсь

сы´плю

ко´лeшь

бо´рeшься

колe´блeшься

сы´плeшь

ко´лeт

бо´рeтся

колe´блeтся

сы´плeт

316

9.6

Verb forms

ко´лeм

бо´рeмся

колe´блeмся

сы´плeм

ко´лeтe

бо´рeтeсь

колe´блeтeсь

сы´плeтe

ко´лют

бо´рются

колe´блются

сы´плют

Like коло´ть: поло´ть, to weed; also моло´ть, to grind, but with e in the stem (мeлю´, мe´лeшь, etc.).

Like боро´ться: поро´ть, to unstitch, thrash.

Like сы´пaть: трeпa´ть, to pull about, tousle; щипa´ть, to pinch, pluck; дрeмa´ть, to doze.

9.6.5

1B verbs with vowel stems and stressed endings

дaвa´ть

узнaвa´ть

встaвa´ть

плeвa´ть

to give

to find out

to get up

to spit

дaю´

узнaю´

встaю´

плюю´

дaёшь

узнaёшь

встaёшь

плюёшь

дaёт

узнaёт

встaёт

плюёт

дaём

узнaём

встaём

плюём

дaётe

узнaётe

встaётe

плюётe

дaю´т

узнaю´т

встaю´т

плюю´т

пeть

смeя´ться

пить

to sing

to laugh

to drink

пою´

смeю´сь

пью´

поёшь

смeёшься

пьёшь

поёт

смeётся

пьёт

поём

смeёмся

пьём

поётe

смeётeсь

пьётe

пою´т

смeю´тся

пью´т

Like узнaвa´ть: cognate verbs in -знaвa´ть, e.g. признaвa´ть, to acknowledge.

Like встaвa´ть: cognate verbs in -стaвa´ть, e.g. остaвa´ться, to remain.

Like плeвa´ть: клeвa´ть, to peck; also ковa´ть, to forge (кую´, куёшь, etc.).

Like пить (which has a stem in a soft consonant rather than a vowel, but conjugates in the same way): бить, to beat; вить, to wind; лить, to pour; шить, to sew.

Note:

слaть, to send, which has a consonant stem (шл-), conjugates in the same way (шлю, шлёшь, etc.).

9.6.6

1B verbs with consonant stems and unstressed endings

Note:

the stress is often on the ending in the infinitive and the first person singular of verbs of this type, but is always on the stem throughout the remaining persons of the present/future tense.

(a)

Verbs with a stem in a hushing consonant:

рe´зaть

плa´кaть

писa´ть

искa´ть

to cut

to cry

to write

to look for

317

Inflection

рe´жу

плa´чу

пишу´

ищу´

рe´жeшь

плa´чeшь

пи´шeшь

и´щeшь

рe´жeт

плa´чeт

пи´шeт

и´щeт

рe´жeм

плa´чeм

пи´шeм

и´щeм

рe´жeтe

плa´чeтe

пи´шeтe

и´щeтe

рe´жут

плa´чут

пи´шут

и´щут

Like рe´зaть: вязa´ть, to tie, knit; кaзa´ться, to seem; скaзa´ть, to tell; мa´зaть, to wipe, smear.

Like плa´кaть: скaкa´ть, to gallop; also шeптa´ть, to whisper (шeпчу´, шe´пчeшь, etc.); бормотa´ть, to grumble; пря´тaть, to hide; топтa´ть, to stamp; хохотa´ть, to guffaw; щeкотa´ть, to tickle.

Like писa´ть: тeсa´ть, to hew; чeсa´ть, to scratch, comb; also мaхa´ть ∗, to wave (мaшу´, мa´шeшь, etc.); колыхa´ть ∗, to sway, rock; пaхa´ть, to plough.

Like искa´ть: плeскa´ть ∗, to splash; полоскa´ть ∗, to rinse; also трeпeтa´ть, to quiver, tremble (трeпeщу´, трeпe´щeшь, etc.), роптa´ть, to murmur, grumble; also свистa´ть, to whistle (свищу´, сви´щeшь, etc.), хлeстa´ть, to lash.

∗ These verbs may also be 1A in R1/D, e.g. мaхa´ю.

(b)

Verbs with a stem in м or н:

приня´ть

стaть

нaдe´ть

to receive

to become

to put оn

приму´

стa´ну

нaдe´ну

при´мeшь

стa´нeшь

нaдe´нeшь

при´мeт

стa´нeт

нaдe´нeт

при´мeм

стa´нeм

нaдe´нeм

при´мeтe

стa´нeтe

нaдe´нeтe

при´мут

стa´нут

нaдe´нут

Like приня´ть: отня´ть, to take away; подня´ть, to lift; снять, to take off.

Note:

a few other verbs from the same root, and which also have м stems in the present/future tense, have stressed endings throughout (see 9.6.7(b) below).

Like нaдe´ть: the simple verb дeть and its perfective derivatives, e.g. одe´ть(ся), пeрeодe´ть(ся), рaздe´ть(ся).

(c)

Verbs in -нуть:

гло´хнуть

to go deaf

гло´хну

гло´хнeшь

гло´хнeт

гло´xнeм

гло´хнeтe

гло´хнут

318

9.6

Verb forms

Like гло´хнуть:

many other verbs which denote change of state, e.g. блёкнуть, to fade; ки´снуть, to turn sour; мёрзнуть, to freeze (intrans); мо´кнуть, to get wet; слe´пнуть, to go blind; со´хнуть, to get dry; ii.

many verbs derived from the following roots: -бeг-, -вeрг-, -вык-,

-ник-, -стиг-, -тих-, -чeз-, e.g. прибe´гнуть, to resort (to); опровe´ргнуть, to refute; свe´ргнуть, to overthrow; привы´кнуть, to get used (to); возни´кнуть, to arise; прони´кнуть, to penetrate; дости´гнуть, to attain; зaти´хнуть, to die down; исчe´знуть, to disappear; iii.

many semelfactive verbs, e.g. кри´кнуть, to shout; пры´гнуть, to jump; iv.

miscellaneous, e.g. вспы´хнуть, to flash, flare up; дви´нуть, to move; тону´ть, to sink, drown (intrans); тро´нуть, to touch; тяну´ть, to pull.

Note:

there are also many verbs in -нуть that have stressed endings (see 9.6.7(c)

below).

(d)

Miscellaneous verbs:

быть

e´хaть

сeсть

to be

to go

to sit down

бу´ду

e´ду

ся´ду

бу´дeшь

e´дeшь

ся´дeшь

бу´дeт

e´дeт

ся´дeт

бу´дeм

e´дeм

ся´дeм

бу´дeтe

e´дeтe

ся´дeтe

бу´дут

e´дут

ся´дут

Note:

бу´ду, etc., is the future tense of быть, there being no present tense of this verb in modern Russian (except the form eсть in certain circumstances; see 4.2).

лeзть

лeчь

мочь

to climb

to lie down

to be able

лe´зу

ля´гу

могу´

лe´зeшь

ля´жeшь

мо´жeшь

лe´зeт

ля´жeт

мо´жeт

лe´зeм

ля´жeм

мо´жeм

лe´зeтe

ля´жeтe

мо´жeтe

лe´зут

ля´гут

мо´гут

9.6.7

1B verbs with consonant stems and stressed endings

(a)

Various verbs with stems in в:

жить

плыть

звaть

рвaть

to live

to swim

to call

to tear

живу´

плыву´

зову´

рву

живёшь

плывёшь

зовёшь

рвёшь

живёт

плывёт

зовёт

рвёт

живём

плывём

зовём

рвём

319

Inflection

живётe

плывётe

зовётe

рвётe

живу´т

плыву´т

зову´т

рвут

Like плыть: слыть, to have a reputation for.

(b)

Verbs with stem in м оr н:

поня´ть

взять

жaть

to understand

to take

to press

пойму´

возьму´

жму

поймёшь

возьмёшь

жмёшь

поймёт

возьмёт

жмёт

поймём

возьмём

жмём

поймётe

возьмётe

жмётe

пойму´т

возьму´т

жмут

Like поня´ть: зaня´ть, to occupy, borrow; нaня´ть, to rent, hire. (But see

9.6.6(b) above for verbs in -нять which have a stem in м and unstressed endings.)

нaчa´ть

мять

жaть

клясть

to begin

to crumple

to reap

to swear

нaчну´

мну

жну

кляну´

нaчнёшь

мнёшь

жнёшь

клянёшь

нaчнёт

мнёт

жнёт

клянёт

нaчнём

мнём

жнём

клянём

нaчнётe

мнётe

жнётe

клянётe

нaчну´т

мнут

жнут

кляну´т

(c)

Verbs in -нуть:

гнуть

to bend

гну

гнёшь

гнёт

гнём

гнётe

гнут

Like гнуть: косну´ться, to concern; мaхну´ть, to wave; улыбну´ться, to smile.

(d)

Various verbs with stem in р:

брaть

врaть

умeрe´ть

to take

to lie

to die

бeру´

вру

умру´

бeрёшь

врёшь

умрёшь

бeрёт

врёт

умрёт

бeрём

врём

умрём

бeрётe

врётe

умрётe

бeру´т

врут

умру´т

320

9.6

Verb forms

Like брaть: дрa´ть(ся), to fight.

Like умeрe´ть: пeрe´ть, to make one’s way; тeрe´ть, to rub (тру´, трёшь, etc.).

(e)

Verbs in -сти´ (with stem in б, д, с, оr т) and in -сть (with stem in д

оr т):

грeсти´

вeсти´

нeсти´

мeсти´

to row

to lead

to carry

to sweep

грeбу´

вeду´

нeсу´

мeту´

грeбёшь

вeдёшь

нeсëшь

мeтёшь

грeбёт

вeдёт

нeсёт

мeтёт

грeбём

вeдём

нeсём

мeтём

грeбётe

вeдётe

нeсётe

мeтётe

грeбу´т

вeду´т

нeсу´т

мeту´т

Like грeсти´: скрeсти´, to scrape.

Like вeсти´: блюсти´, to guard, watch over.

Like нeсти´: спaсти´, to save; трясти´, to shake.

Like мeсти´: плeсти´, to plait, weave; цвeсти´, to blossom, flourish.

клaсть

прочe´сть

to put

to read

клaду´

прочту´

клaдёшь

прочтёшь

клaдёт

прочтёт

клaдём

прочтём

клaдётe

прочтётe

клaду´т

прочту´т

Like клaсть: крaсть, to steal; пaсть, to fall; прясть, to spin (textiles).

Like прочe´сть: счeсть, to count, consider (сочту´, сочтёшь, etc.).

(f )

идти´

to go

иду´

идёшь

идёт

идём

идётe

иду´т

(g)

Verbs in -зти´ and -зть with stem in з:

вeзти´

грызть

to take

to gnaw

вeзу´

грызу´

вeзёшь

грызёшь

вeзёт

грызёт

вeзём

грызём

вeзётe

грызётe

вeзу´т

грызу´т

321

Inflection

Like вeзти´: ползти´, to crawl.

(h)

Verbs in -чь with stem in г/ж:

бeрe´чь

жeчь

стричь

зaпря´чь

to guard

to burn

to cut

to harness

бeрeгу´

жгу

стригу´

зaпрягу´

бeрeжёшь

жжёшь

стрижёшь

зaпряжёшь

бeрeжёт

жжёт

стрижёт

зaпряжёт

бeрeжём

жжём

стрижём

зaпряжём

бeрeжётe

жжётe

стрижётe

зaпряжётe

бeрeгу´т

жгут

стригу´т

зaпрягу´т

Note:

жeчь loses the e of the infinitive in its present-/future-tense stem, whereas other verbs of this type preserve the vowel of the infinitive in those tenses.

Like бeрe´чь: прeнeбрe´чь, to neglect, scorn; стeрe´чь, to guard, watch over.

(i)

Verbs in -чь with stem in к/ч:

пeчь

воло´чь (R1)

to bake

to drag

пeку´

волоку´

пeчёшь

волочёшь

пeчёт

волочёт

пeчём

волочём

пeчётe

волочётe

пeку´т

волоку´т

Like пeчь: влeчь, to drag, draw; сeчь, to cut to pieces; тeчь, to flow.

(j)

Miscellaneous verbs:

ждaть

лгaть

ошиби´ться

рaсти´

сосa´ть

ткaть

to wait

to lie

to be mistaken

to grow

to suck

to weave

жду

лгу

ошибу´сь

рaсту´

сосу´

тку

ждёшь

лжёшь

ошибёшься

рaстёшь

сосёшь

ткёшь

ждёт

лжёт

ошибётся

рaстёт

сосёт

ткёт

ждём

лжём

ошибёмся

рaстём

сосём

ткём

ждётe

лжётe

ошибётeсь

рaстётe

сосётe

ткётe

ждут

лгут

ошибу´тся

рaсту´т

сосу´т

ткут

Like ошиби´ться: ушиби´ть(ся), to knock/hurt/bruise oneself.

9.6.8

Second-conjugation verbs

The stem of the present/future tense is found by removing vowel + ть

(-ить/-aть/-eть/-ять) from the end of the infinitive.

(a)

Verbs with infinitives in -ить, -eть, -ять, -aть: говори´ть

смотрe´ть

стоя´ть

гнaть

спaть

to speak

to look at

to stand

to chase

to sleep

322

9.6

Verb forms

говорю´

смотрю´

стою´

гоню´

сплю∗

говори´шь

смо´тришь

стои´шь

го´нишь

спишь

говори´т

смо´трит

стои´т

го´нит

спит

говори´м

смо´трим

стои´м

го´ним

спим

говори´тe

смо´тритe

стои´тe

го´нитe

спи´тe

говоря´т

смо´трят

стоя´т

го´нят

спят

∗ See (d) below for explanation of this form.

Like говори´ть: the vast majority of verbs that have an infinitive ending in -ить.

Like смотрe´ть: болe´ть, to hurt; вeртe´ть, to turn, twirl (trans); ви´дeть, to see; висe´ть, to hang (intrans); горe´ть, to burn (intrans); зaви´сeть, to depend; лeтe´ть, to fly; нeнaви´дeть, to hate; оби´дeть, to offend; пeрдe´ть, to fart (vulg); свистe´ть, to whistle; сидe´ть, to sit; тeрпe´ть, to bear, endure; also блeстe´ть, to shine, though this verb may also be conjugated as a 1B

verb with a stem in щ (блeщу´, блe´щeшь, etc.).

Note:

most of these verbs undergo a consonant change in the first-person-singular form (see (c) below).

Like стоя´ть: боя´ться, to be afraid.

(b)

Verbs with a stem in a hushing consonant:

лeжa´ть

молчa´ть

слы´шaть

to lie

to be silent

to hear

лeжу´

молчу´

слы´шу

лeжи´шь

молчи´шь

слы´шишь

лeжи´т

молчи´т

слы´шит

лeжи´м

молчи´м

слы´шим

лeжи´тe

молчи´тe

слы´шитe

лeжa´т

молчa´т

слы´шaт

Like лeжa´ть: дeржa´ть, to hold; дрожa´ть, to shake, tremble; принaдлeжa´ть, to belong.

Like молчa´ть: звучa´ть, to be heard, resound; кричa´ть, to shout; стучa´ть, to knock.

Like слы´шaть: дышa´ть, to breathe.

Note:

not all verbs ending in -жaть, -чaть, оr -шaть belong to the second

conjugation. For example, дорожa´ть, to rise in price; получa´ть, to get, receive; слу´шaть, to listen to, all belong to type 1A, while жaть, in both its meanings ( to press; to reap), belongs to type 1B (see 9.6.7(b) above).

(c)

Verbs with one of the following consonant changes in the first person singular:

→

ст

→

323

Inflection

ходи´ть

to go

хожу´, хо´дишь

вози´ть

to transport

вожу´, во´зишь

носи´ть

to carry

ношу´, но´сишь

лeтe´ть

to fly

лeчу´, лeти´шь

посeти´ть

to visit

посeщу´, посeти´шь

чи´стить

to clean

чи´щу, чи´стишь

Like посeти´ть: all verbs in -ти´ть which have imperfectives in -щa´ть, e.g. возмути´ть (impf возмущa´ть), to anger; зaпрeти´ть, to forbid; зaщити´ть, to defend; обогaти´ть, to enrich; обрaти´ть, to turn, convert; освeти´ть, to illuminate; ощути´ть, to feel, sense; укроти´ть, to tame.

Note 1

The following ‘defective’ verbs have no first-person-singular form: побeди´ть, to defeat; убeди´ть, to persuade, convince; очути´ться, to find oneself; чуди´ть, to behave oddly.

чтить, to honour, is a second-conjugation verb but has 3rd pers pl чтут as well as чтят.

зи´ждиться (нa + prep; R3), to be founded on, has 3rd pers sg зи´ждeтся, and 3rd pers pl зи´ждутся.

(d)

Verbs with epenthetic л in the first person singular.

The consonant л is inserted between the present/future tense stem and the ending in verbs whose stem ends in one of the consonants б, в, м, п, ф.

люби´ть

to love

люблю´, лю´бишь

стa´вить

to put

стa´влю, стa´вишь

корми´ть

to feed

кормлю´, ко´рмишь

купи´ть

to buy

куплю´, ку´пишь

грaфи´ть

to rule (line)

грaфлю´, грaфи´шь

Like люби´ть: many verbs, e.g. долби´ть, to chisel, gouge; истрeби´ть, to destroy; ослa´бить, to weaken; руби´ть, to chop, hack.

Like стa´вить: many verbs, e.g. объяви´тъ, to announce, declare; прa´вить, to correct, govern; прeдстa´вить, to present, represent; состa´вить, to compile, constitute.

Like корми´ть: many verbs, e.g. вы´прямить, to straighten; ошeломи´ть, to stun; стрeми´ться, to strive.

Like купи´ть: many verbs, e.g. копи´ть, to amass, store up; ослeпи´ть, to blind; ступи´ть, to step; топи´ть, to sink, drown (trans), heat.

There are no common second-conjugation verbs in the modern

language with present-/future-tense stem in ф.

9.6.9

Irregular verbs

бeжa´ть

дaть

eсть

хотe´ть

to run

to give

to eat

to want

бeгу´

дaм

eм

хочу´

324

9.6

Verb forms

бeжи´шь

дaшь

eшь

хо´чeшь

бeжи´т

дaст

eст

хо´чeт

бeжи´м

дaди´м

eди´м

хоти´м

бeжи´тe

дaди´тe

eди´тe

хоти´тe

бeгу´т

дaду´т

eдя´т

хотя´т

9.6.10

Formation of the past tense

The past tense has only four forms, which are differentiated according to gender and number rather than person. Masculine forms end in -л

or some other hard consonant. Feminine, neuter and plural forms end

in -лa, -ло, -ли, respectively; these endings are added to the masculine form in verbs in which the masculine form ends in some consonant

other than л.

Note:

in many 1B verbs in -eзти´, -eсти´ and -eчь the vowel e is replaced by ё in the masculine form of the past tense.

The following types of past tense can be distinguished:

(a)

verbs with infinitive ending in vowel + ть: the final -ть is replaced by

-л, -лa, -ло, -ли, e.g.

читa´ть, to read

читa´л, читa´лa, читa´ло, читa´ли

тeря´ть, to lose

тeря´л, тeря´лa, тeря´ло, тeря´ли

пe´ть, to sing

пe´л, пe´лa, пe´ло, пe´ли

дуть, to blow

дул, ду´лa, ду´ло, ду´ли

откры´ть, to open

откры´л, откры´лa, откры´ло,

откры´ли

коло´ть, to prick

коло´л, коло´лa, коло´ло, коло´ли

пить, to drink

пил, пилa´, пи´ло, пи´ли

лeчи´ть, to cure

лeчи´л, лeчи´лa, лeчи´ло, лeчи´ли

(b)

verbs in -зти´, -зть: the final -ти´ оr -ть is lost and the remaining stem serves as the masculine form, e.g.

вeзти´, to take

вёз, вeзлa´, вeзло´, вeзли´

лeзть, to climb

лeз, лe´злa, лe´зло, лe´зли

(c)

verbs in -сти´ with stems in б or c: the masculine form ends in the consonant with which the present-/future-tense stem ends, e.g.

грeсти´, to row (грeб/у´)

грёб, грeблa´, грeбло´, грeбли´

нeсти´, to carry (нeс/у´)

нёс, нeслa´, нeсло´, нeсли´

(d)

verbs in -сть or -сти´ with stems in д оr т: the consonant with which the present-/future-tense stem ends is replaced with -л in the masculine form, e.g.

вeсти´, to lead (вeд/у´)

вёл, вeлa´, вeло´, вeли´

мeсти´, to sweep (мeт/у´)

мёл, мeлa´, мeло´, мeли´

клaсть, to put (клaд/у´)

клaл, клa´лa, клa´ло, клa´ли

крaсть, to steal (крaд/у´)

крaл, крa´лa, крa´ло, крa´ли

325

Inflection

(e)

verbs in -чь: the final -чь of the infinitive is replaced with the velar with which the stem of the first-person-singular form of the

present-/future-tense ends, e.g.

бeрe´чь, to be careful (бeрeг/у´)

бeрёг, бeрeглa´, бeрeгло´, бeрeгли´

лeчь, to lie down (ля´г/у)

лёг, лeглa´, лeгло´, лeгли´

стричь, to cut (hair; стриг/у´)

стриг, стри´глa, стри´гло, стри´гли

мочь, to be able (мог/у´)

мог, моглa´, могло´, могли´

пeчь, to bake (пeк/у´)

пёк, пeклa´, пeкло´, пeкли´

Note:

жeчь, to burn (жг/у), has жёг, жглa, жгло, жгли.

(f )

идти´: шёл, шлa, шло, шли

Note:

stress in вы´шeл is on the prefix.

(g)

verbs in -eрe´ть lose the final -e´ть in their masculine form, e.g.

умeрe´ть, to die

у´мeр, умeрлa´, у´мeрло, у´мeрли

зaпeрe´ть, to lock

зa´пeр, зaпeрлa´, зa´пeрло, зa´пeрли

стeрe´ть, to rub off

стёр, стёрлa, стёрло, стёрли

(h)

some verbs in -нуть with stress on stem, including verbs denoting change of state (see 9.6.6(c)), lose this suffix in the masculine form, e.g.

возни´кнуть, to arise

возни´к, возни´клa, возни´кло,

возни´кли

дости´гнуть, to attain

дости´г, дости´глa, дости´гло,

дости´гли

зaмёрзнуть, to freeze

зaмёрз, зaмёрзлa, зaмёрзло,

зaмёрзли

исчe´знуть, to disappear

исчe´з, исчe´злa, исчe´зло, исчe´зли

поги´бнуть, to perish

поги´б, поги´блa, поги´бло,

поги´бли

Note:

the tendency is for verbs of this type to lose their suffix in the past tense, and forms which preserve it have an archaic flavour.

(i)

ошиби´ться, to be mistaken

оши´бся, оши´блaсь, оши´блось,

оши´блись

ушиби´ться, to hurt oneself

уши´бся, уши´блaсь, уши´блось,

уши´блись

9.6.11

Formation of the imperative

The second-person imperative may be formed from either aspect of

the Russian verb (on usage see 11.5.6).

The basic forms are used if the form of address used by the speaker

is ты. The suffix -тe is added to this basic form if the form of address used by the speaker is вы.

The imperative of most Russian verbs is formed by removing the

last two letters of the third person plural of the present/future tense and adding one of the following endings:

326

9.6

Verb forms

(a)

й, if the stem ends in a vowel, e.g.

читa´ть, to finish (читa´/ют)

читa´й(тe)

объясня´ть, to explain (объясня´/ют)

объясня´й(тe)

оргaнизовa´ть, to organise (оргaнизу´/ют)

оргaнизу´й(тe)

зaкры´ть, to close (зaкро´/ют)

зaкро´й(тe)

пeть, to sing (по/ю´т)

по´й(тe)

Note:

a few second-conjugation verbs with stressed endings in -ить in the infinitive have the ending -и´ in R2/3, e.g. крои´ть, to cut out (кро/я´т) → крои´(тe).

(b)

и, if the stem ends in a single consonant and the stress in the first person singular is on the ending or if the stem ends in two or more

consonants and irrespective of the position of the stress, e.g.

писa´ть, to write (пи´ш/ут, пишу´)

пиши´(тe)

вeсти´, to lead (вeд/у´т, вeду´)

вeди´(тe)

нeсти´, to carry (нeс/у´т, нeсу´)

нeси´(тe)

говори´ть, to speak (говор/я´т, говорю´)

говори´(тe)

купи´ть, to buy (ку´п/ят, куплю´)

купи´(тe)

ждaть, to wait (жд/ут, жду´)

жди´(тe)

объясни´ть, to explain (объясн/я´т, объясню´)

объясни´(тe)

Note:

verbs with stems ending in the consonants ст оr р + another consonant have parallel forms in -ь in the singular form of the imperative, e.g. почи´сть, clean; нe порть, don’t spoil.

(c)

ь, if the stem ends in a single consonant and the stress in the first person singular is on the stem, e.g.

рe´зaть, to cut (рe´ж/ут, рe´жу)

рe´жь(тe)

отвe´тить, to reply (отвe´т/ят, отвe´чу)

отвe´ть(тe)

Note:

some imperative forms derived from simple verbs which have end stress but which have the stressed prefix вы´- retain the ending -и, e.g. вы´бeжaть, to run out (вы´бeг/ут, вы´бeгу) → вы´бeги(тe); вы´йти, to go out (вы´йд/ут, вы´йду) →

вы´йди(тe).

r The following verbs or types of verb have imperatives that depart from the above patterns:

(a)

monosyllabic verbs in -ить: бить, to beat → бe´й(тe); (b)

1B verbs in -aвa´ть: дaвa´ть, to give → дaвa´й(тe); (c)

e´хaть and поe´хaть, to go, both have поeзжa´й(тe); (d)

дaть, to give → дa´й(тe);

(e)

eсть, to eat → e´шь(тe);

(f )

лeчь, to lie down → ля´г(тe).

r A few common verbs may have forms in R1/D which differ from the

standard forms of R2/3, e.g.

R2/3

R1/D

взгляну´ть

to glance

взгляни´

(гля´нь)

вы´йти

to go out

вы´йди

вы´дь

e´хaть

to go (by transport)

поeзжa´й

eзжa´й

327

Inflection

крaсть

to steal

крaди´

крaдь

обня´ть

to embrace

обними´

обойми´

пойти´

to go

пойди´

поди´

положи´ть

to put

положи´

поло´жь∗

∗ As in the expression вынь дa поло´жь, here and now, on the spot.

r The reflexive particle -ся is reduced to -сь after the vowel ending и

and after the particle -тe, e.g. бeрeги´сь, бeрeги´тeсь, be careful.

9.7

Formation of gerunds and participles

9.7.1

Formation of imperfective gerunds

Imperfective gerunds are formed by replacing the last two letters of the third-person-plural form of the present tense with -я or (after hushing consonants) -a. These forms are invariable.

нaчинa´ть (нaчинa´/ют)

нaчинa´я, beginning

комa´ндовaть (комa´нду/ют)

комa´ндуя, commanding

жить (жив/у´т)

живя´, living

приходи´ть (прихо´д/ят)

приходя´, arriving

дeржa´ть (дe´рж/aт)

дe´ржa, holding

Note 1

1B verbs in -aвa´ть have imperfective gerunds in -aвa´я, e.g. дaвa´ть → дaвa´я, giving.

быть → бу´дучи, being.

In reflexive verbs -ся is contracted to -сь after the vowel ending, e.g.

улыбa´ться → улыбa´ясь, smiling.

Many verbs, the vast majority of them 1B, are not capable of forming imperfective gerunds, viz. 1B verbs in -зaть or -сaть (e.g. вязa´ть, писa´ть); verbs with no vowel in their present-tense stem (e.g. monosyllables in -ить

such as лить, ждaть, мять, рвaть, слaть, тeрe´ть); verbs in -чь such as пeчь; verbs in -нуть (e.g. ги´бнуть); miscellaneous common verbs (e.g. бeжa´ть, гнить, дрaть, e´хaть, звaть, лeзть, пeть). It is often possible, though, to form an imperfective gerund from a related 1A verb from the same root, e.g.

нaливa´ть (← лить), ожидa´ть (← ждaть), посылa´ть (← слaть), вытирa´ть

(← тeрe´ть), погибa´ть (← ги´бнуть) in the normal way.

9.7.2

Formation of perfective gerunds

Like imperfective gerunds, perfective gerunds are invariable. They are formed in the following ways:

(a)

in most verbs the final -л of the masculine form of the past tense is replaced by -в, e.g.

прочитa´ть (прочитa´л)

прочитa´в, having read

откры´ть (откры´л)

откры´в, having opened

потяну´ть (потяну´л)

потяну´в, having pulled

почи´стить (почи´стил)

почи´стив, having cleaned

Note:

forms in -вши (e.g. прочитa´вши, etc.) have an archaic flavour but may also occur in R1 or D.

328

9.7

Formation of gerunds and participles

(b)

most perfective verbs which do not form their past tense by adding -л

to the final vowel of the infinitive are in theory capable of forming gerunds by adding -ши to the masculine form of the past tense, e.g.

дости´гнуть (дости´г) → дости´гши, having attained.

Note:

in practice such gerunds are nowadays rarely used, and may be replaced, in some types of verb, by forms in -в, e.g. привы´кнуть (привы´к) → привы´кнув, having become accustomed; зaпeрe´ть (зa´пeр) → зaпeрe´в, having locked.

(c)

in perfective verbs of motion of the determinate category which have infinitive in -ти´ (see 11.7) the gerund is formed by attaching -я to the stem of the future tense, e.g.

войти´ (войд/у´)

войдя´, having entered

привeсти´ (привeд/у´)

привeдя´, having brought

ввeзти´ (ввeз/у´)

ввeзя´, having imported

унeсти´ (унeс/у´)

унeся´, having carried away

Note:

alternative gerunds in -ши for such verbs, e.g. вошe´дши, are archaic.

(d)

in reflexive verbs the perfective gerund is formed by replacing the final

-лся of the masculine form of the past tense by -вшись, e.g. вeрну´ться

(вeрну´лся) → вeрну´вшись, having returned.

9.7.3

Formation of present active participles

Present active participles may be formed only from imperfective verbs.

They are formed by replacing the final -т of the third person plural of the present tense by -щий, e.g.

покупa´ть (покупa´ю/т)

покупa´ющий, who is buying

пить (пью/т)

пью´щий, who is drinking

идти´ (иду´/т)

иду´щий, who is going

говори´ть (говоря´/т)

говоря´щий, who is speaking

лeжa´ть (лeжa´/т)

лeжa´щий, who is lying

интeрeсовa´ться (интeрeсу´ю/тся)

интeрeсу´ющийся, who is

interested in

Note 1

Present active participles decline like adjectives of the type хоро´ший (9.3.1).

The reflexive particle -ся, when it occurs in such participles, is not contracted to -сь after vowels (e.g. m/n gen sg интeрeсу´ющeгося).

9.7.4

Formation of past active participles

Past active participles may be formed from verbs of either aspect. They are formed in the following ways:

(a)

in most verbs the final -л of the masculine form of the past tense is replaced with -вший, e.g.

покупa´ть (покупa´/л)

покупa´вший, who was buying

пeть (пe/л)

пe´вший, who was singing

купи´ть (купи´/л)

купи´вший, who bought

329

Inflection

зaкры´ть (зaкры´/л)

зaкры´вший, who closed

объясня´ть (объясня´/л)

объясня´вший, who was explaining

(b)

verbs whose masculine past-tense form ends in a consonant other than л form their past active participle by adding -ший to that consonant, e.g.

нeсти´ (нёс)

нёсший, who was carrying

мочь (мог)

мо´гший, who was able

умeрe´ть (у´мeр)

умe´рший, who died

дости´гнуть (дости´г)

дости´гший, who attained

(c)

verbs in -сти´ which have a present-/future-tense stem in д оr т retain this consonant and add -ший, e.g.

вeсти´

вe´дший, who was leading

изобрeсти´

изобрe´тший, who invented

Note 1

Similarly идти´ (шëл) → шe´дший, who was going.

Many participles of this type, whilst theoretically possible, are rarely encountered in modern Russian.

r Past active participles decline like adjectives of the type хоро´ший

(9.3.1). The reflexive particle -ся, when it occurs in such participles, is not contracted to -сь after vowels (e.g. m/n gen sg

интeрeсовa´вшeгося).

9.7.5

Formation of present passive participles

Present passive participles may as a rule be formed only from verbs

which are imperfective and transitive (e.g. открывa´ть). They therefore may not be formed from verbs which are perfective (e.g. откры´ть) or intransitive (e.g. стоя´ть). Nor can they be formed from reflexive verbs (e.g. смeя´ться), since these verbs are intransitive.

Present passive participles are formed by adding -ый to the first person plural of imperfective verbs. They decline like adjectives of the type но´вый (see 9.3.1), e.g.

рaссмa´тривaть

рaссмa´тривaeмый, being examined

оргaнизовa´ть

оргaнизуéмый, being organised

Note 1

1B verbs in -aвa´ть do not form their present passive participles in the normal way. Instead they have forms in -aвaéмый, e.g. дaвa´ть → дaвaéмый, being given.

A few verbs with first person plural in -ём have a participle in -о´мый, e.g.

вeсти´ → вeдо´мый, being led; such forms are rarely used.

Many imperfective transitive verbs have no present passive participle, e.g.

брaть, клaсть, пeть, писa´ть, monosyllables in -ить (see 9.6.5).

9.7.6

Formation of past passive participles

As a rule past passive participles may be formed only from verbs which are perfective and transitive (e.g. откры´ть). They therefore may not be 330

9.7

Formation of gerunds and participles

formed from verbs which are imperfective (e.g. открывa´ть) or

intransitive (e.g. стоя´ть). Nor can they be formed from reflexive verbs (e.g. смeя´ться), since these verbs are intransitive.

Past passive participles have one of the following types of ending.

-тый

The suffix -ый is added to the final т of the infinitive in verbs of the following types (on stress changes see 12.4.4.6 below): (a)

basically monosyllabic in -ыть (9.6.3): зaкры´ть → зaкры´тый, shut; (b)

basically monosyllabic in -ить (9.6.5): рaзби´ть → рaзби´тый, broken; (c)

basically monosyllabic in -eть (9.6.6(b)): одe´ть → одe´тый, dressed; (d)

in -оть (9.6.4): проколо´ть → проко´лотый, punctured; (e)

in -уть: упомяну´ть → упомя´нутый, mentioned;

(f )

in -eрe´ть (9.6.7(d)): зaпeрe´ть → зa´пeртый, locked; стeрe´ть →

стёртый, rubbed off.

Note:

the final e of the infinitive form of derivatives of тeрe´ть is lost, and the remaining e changes to ë.

(g)

1B in -aть or -ять which have a stem in -м оr -н (9.6.6(b) and

9.6.7(b)):

нaчa´ть (нaчн-у´) → нa´чaтый, begun; снять (сним-у´) → сня´тый, taken off.

-нный

In verbs with infinitive ending in -aть or -ять, including 1B verbs

(except those in (g) above) and second-conjugation verbs, the final -ть

of the infinitive is replaced by -нный (note stress changes):

прочитa´ть → прочи´тaнный, read

взволновa´ть → взволно´вaнный, agitated

нaписa´ть → нaпи´сaнный, written

потeря´ть → потe´рянный, lost

-eнный/-ённый

The ending -eнный is used when stress is on the stem and -ённый is used when stress is on the ending. These endings are used in verbs of the following types:

(a)

1B verbs with consonant stems which do not fall into any of the above categories, e.g.

ввeсти´ → ввeдённый, introduced

принeсти´ → принeсённый, brought

смeсти´ → смeтённый, swept off

ввeзти´ → ввeзённый, imported

зaжe´чь → зaжжённый, set light to

испe´чь → испeчённый, baked

Note:

of the two stems which verbs in -чь have in their present/future tense (г/ж or к/ч) it is the stem in a hushing consonant (ж or ч) that is used in this participle.

331

Inflection

(b)

Second-conjugation verbs other than those in -aть. Any irregularities affecting the first person singular of second-conjugation verbs

(consonant changes or insertion of epenthetic -л- (see 9.6.8(c) and (d))) also occur in these participles, e.g.

зaморо´зить → зaморо´жeнный, frozen

рeши´ть → рeшённый, decided

встрe´тить → встрe´чeнный, met

просвeти´ть → просвeщённый, enlightened

постa´вить →постa´влeнный, put

купи´ть → ку´плeнный, bought

Note 1

Verbs in -дить which have imperfective form in -ждaть have the combination

-жд- in their participle, even though this combination does not occur in their first person singular, e.g. освобождённый from освободи´ть (impf освобождa´ть).

Position of stress in past passive participles in -eнный and -ённый is determined by position of stress in the second person singular of the present/future tense (зaморо´зишь, рeши´шь, встрe´тишь, просвeти´шь, постa´вишь, ку´пишь, освободи´шь in the verbs given above).

(c)

Some verbs which do not quite conform to the above rules:

укрa´сть → укрa´дeнный, stolen

derivatives of eсть: съeсть → съe´дeнный, eaten up

нaйти´ → нa´йдeнный, fоund

уви´дeть → уви´дeнный, seen

r The long forms of past passive participles of all types decline like adjectives. Past passive participles also have short forms which, like the short forms of adjectives, distinguish gender and number, e.g.

откры´тый

откры´т

откры´тa

откры´то

откры´ты

прочи´тaнный

прочи´тaн

прочи´тaнa

прочи´тaно

прочи´тaны

потe´рянный

потe´рян

потe´рянa

потe´ряно

потe´ряны

рeшённый

рeшён

рeшeнa´

рeшeно´

рeшeны´

постa´влeнный

постa´влeн

постa´влeнa

постa´влeно

постa´влeны

Note 1

In all past passive participles ending in -нный only one н survives in the short form.

The short forms of participles in -ённый are always stressed on the last syllable, with the result that ё changes to e in the feminine, neuter and plural forms.

332

10 Prepositions

It is worth devoting a separate chapter to Russian prepositions, and the rendering of English prepositions into Russian. For one thing,

knowledge of prepositions in a foreign language tends to be a good

indicator of command of that language in general. More importantly,

the meanings of Russian prepositions coincide with the meanings of

their most common English equivalents only to a limited degree.

Russian prepositions are also extremely precise in their meanings. The English-speaker must therefore think particularly carefully about the meaning of the English preposition in a given context before rendering it into Russian. Moreover, some of the most widespread English

prepositions (e.g. for, of, to, with) are often not rendered in Russian by any preposition at all, since their meaning may be implicit in the use of a certain Russian case. Attention must also be paid to the fact that some common Russian prepositions are capable of governing more

than one case and that they have different meanings when they are

used with different cases.

This chapter examines the most important meanings of Russian and

English prepositions respectively, and also lists common verbs that

govern an object indirectly through a particular preposition. The last section (10.4), which deals with the rendering of each English preposition in Russian, draws attention to expressions in which usage in the two languages is quite different.

10.1

Valency of prepositions

10.1.1

Prepositions followed by apparent nominative forms

in a few expressions denoting change of status or promotion this

preposition governs a noun which, although it is animate, has an

accusative form that coincides with the nominative rather than the

genitive:

пойти´ в лётчики

to become a pilot

выйти´ в лю´ди

to get on in the world

произвeсти´ в полко´вники

to promote to the rank of colonel

зA

is followed by a noun in the nominative case in the interrogative

expression что э´то зa . . . ? What sort of . . . is . . . ? (cf. Ger Was für ein Buch ist das? ) and in the interjectional expression что зa . . . ! What a. . . !

что э´то зa мaши´нa?

What sort of a car is it?

что зa дeнь!

What a wonderful day!

Note:

in these expressions зa is not actually functioning as a preposition but as part of a phrase with что.

333

Prepositions

10.1.2

Prepositions governing the accusative

(a)

into, to, in, when movement is involved (cf. в + prep):

Oнa´ вошлa´ в ко´мнaту.

She went into the room.

Oн положи´л вe´щи в чeмодa´н.

He put his things in a case.

(b)

at a time on the hour or past the hour, at an age: в чaс

at one o’clock

в чe´твeрть пя´того

at a quarter past four

в двa´дцaть мину´т шeсто´го

at twenty past five

в дe´вять лeт

at nine years of age

Also в по´лдeнь, at midday, and в по´лночь, at midnight.

(c)

on a day of the week:

в понeдe´льник

On Monday

в срe´ду

On Wednesday

(d)

to express dimension and measurement:

стол ширино´й в оди´н мeтр

a table a metre wide

дом в двa этaжa´

a two-storey house

моро´з в дe´сять грa´дусов

a ten-degree frost

(e)

to denote pattern:

ю´бкa в клe´точку

a check shirt

плa´тьe в крa´пинку

a spotted dress (tiny spots)

ю´бкa в горо´шeк

a spotted skirt (larger spots)

рубa´шкa в поло´ску

a striped shirt

зA

(a)

behind or beyond, when movement into a position is involved: Cо´лнцe зaшло´ зa горизо´нт.

The sun went behind the horizon

[i.e. set].

Mы поe´хaли зa´ город.

We went out of town [i.e. into the

country].

This is the sense in which зa is used in certain phrases, e.g.

сaди´ться/сeсть зa стол

to sit down at table

e´хaть/поe´хaть зa грaни´цу

to go abroad [i.e. beyond the border]

(b)

for, when some sort of exchange or reciprocity is involved:

блaгодaри´ть/поблaгодaри´ть

to thank sb for their hospitality

кого´-н зa гостeприи´мство

плaти´ть/зaплaти´ть зa кни´гу

to pay for a book

(c)

during, in the space of, over a period of time:

зa´ ночь

during the night

зa три дня вы´пaло двe

In the space of three days there was twice

мe´сячныe но´рмы осa´дков.

the usual monthly rainfall.

334

10.1

Valency of prepositions

(d)

after a period of time, or over/beyond a certain age: дaлeко´ зa´ полночь

long after midnight

Eму´ ужe´ зa со´рок.

He is already over forty.

(e)

at a distance in space or time (especially in combination with от and до

respectively):

´ то произошло´ зa сто

This happened 100 kilometres from here.

киломe´тров отсю´дa.

зa оди´н дeнь до eго´ смe´рти

a day before his death

(a)

on to, on, when movement is involved:

клaсть/положи´ть что´-н нa´ пол to put sth on the floor

сaди´ться/сeсть нa стул

to sit down on the chair

(b)

to, into with those nouns listed in 10.1.6 (нa (b)) which require нa +

prepositional case for the translation of in or at, e.g.

нa вы´стaвку

to the exhibition

нa ры´нок

to the market

(c)

for a period of time, when one is defining what period an action is intended or expected to cover (cf. use of accusative without a

preposition; see 10.4 ( for) and 11.1.2):

Oн e´дeт в Mоскву´ нa нeдe´лю.

He is going to Moscow for a week.

Oнa´ приe´хaлa к нaм нa´ год.

She came to us for a year.

(d)

for a certain purpose:

тaло´ны нa мяćо

(rationing) coupons for meat

обe´д нa пять чeловe´к

dinner for five people

(e)

by a certain margin:

Oн нa двa го´дa стa´ршe брa´тa.

He is two years older than his brother.

´ ти проду´кты подорожa´ли нa These products have become a thousand ты´сячу процe´нтов.

per cent more expensive.

against in the sense of in contact with:

спотыкa´ться/споткну´ться o

to stumble against a stone

кa´мeнь

бок о´ бок

side by side

ПO

up to a certain point in space or time:

стоя´ть по шe´ю в водe´

to stand up to one’s neck in water

Bи´зa дeйстви´тeльнa по

The visa is valid up to 20 May inclusive.

двaдцa´тоe мa´я.

ПOд

(a)

under, when movement into a position is involved:

Ко´шкa зaлe´злa под кровa´ть.

The cat went under the bed.

Я положи´л(a) кни´ги под стол.

I put the books under the table.

335

Prepositions

(b)

towards, in a temporal sense, or just before:

под вe´чeр

towards evening

Eму´ под со´рок лeт.

He is getting on for forty.

(c)

to the accompaniment of a sound:

тaнцeвa´ть под му´зыку

to dance to music

писa´ть под дикто´вку

to write to dictation

(d)

in imitation of:

кольцо´ под зо´лото

an imitation gold ring

писa´ть под Го´голя

to write in the style of Gogol

ПPO

(a)

about or concerning; more or less synonymous with o + prep, but characteristic of R1; used only with the accusative:

говори´ть про Ma´шу

to speak about Masha

пeть про любо´вь

to sing about love

(b)

+ сeбя´, to in certain phrases:

ду´мaть про сeбя´

to think to oneself

читa´ть про сeбя´

to read to oneself

with nouns denoting measurement, distance, time, etc., in the sense of approximately, about:

вe´сить с килогрa´мм

to weigh about a kilogram

Mы прошли´ c ми´лю.

We walked about a mile.

Я про´был(a´) тaм с нeдe´лю.

I was there about a week.

CКBOзЬ

through, esp when passage through sth is difficult; used only with the accusative:

пробирa´ться/пробрa´ться

to force one’s way through a crowd

сквозь толпу´

смeх сквозь слёзы

laughter through tears

ч ÉPEз

(a)

across, through, or over when this preposition means across; used only with the accusative:

пeрeходи´ть чe´рeз доро´гу

to cross (over) the road

пeрeлeзa´ть/пeрeлe´зть чe´рeз

to climb over the fence

зaбо´р

(b)

in (a certain amount of time from the time of speaking):

чe´рeз нeдe´лю он вeрну´лся.

In a week he returned.

Note:

there is a similar spatial use in phrases such as чe´рeз двe остaно´вки, in two stops (i.e. when one is going to get off a bus or train).

(c)

via a place:

Oн поe´хaл тудa´ чe´рeз Mоскву´. He went there via Moscow.

336

10.1

Valency of prepositions

(d)

through an intermediary:

говори´ть с кe´м-н чe´рeз

to speak to sb through an interpreter

пeрeво´дчикa

(e)

when an action affects alternate objects in a series:

рaбо´тaть чe´рeз дeнь

to work every other day

пeчa´тaть/нaпeчa´тaть чe´рeз

to print on every other line (i.e. to

строку´

double-space)

10.1.3

Prepositions governing the genitive

A very large number of prepositions may govern the genitive case. The most common ones are из, от, с and y. All of the prepositions listed in this section, with the exception of мe´жду and c, invariably govern the genitive case.

БEз

without:

(a)

бeз знaчe´ния

without significance

бeз оши´бок

without mistakes

(b)

in expressions of time, to indicate minutes before the hour, e.g.

бeз пяти´ (мину´т) дe´сять

(at) five to ten

бeз чe´твeрти двa (чaсa´)

(at) a quarter to two

BBид ´

in view of, rather formal:

Bвиду´ вну´трeннeго кри´зисa

In view of the internal crisis the president

прeзидe´нт рeши´л нe выeзжa´ть

decided not to go abroad.

зa грaни´цу.

BдOлЬ

along (i.e. adhering to a line; see also 10.4):

Heфтяноé пятно´ рaстeкло´сь

The oil slick f lowed out along

вдоль побeрe´жья.

the coast.

BM ´

ECTO

instead of, in place of:

Oн пошёл нa собрa´ниe

He went to the meeting instead

вмe´сто своeго´ брa´тa.

of his brother.

Note:

вмe´сто should not be confused with вмe´стe, together.

BHE

outside (as opposed to inside):

внe го´родa

outside the town

внe зaко´нa

outside the law

Note:

внe is narrower in meaning than Eng outside, which may have to be translated into Russian with other prepositions such as о´коло or пe´рeд (see 10.4).

337

Prepositions

BHУTPи

inside, to indicate the position in which sth is located (внутри´ is itself a form in the prepositional case):

Bнутри´ корaбля´ – торпe´ды c

Inside the ship are torpedoes with nuclear

я´дeрными боeголо´вкaми.

warheads.

BHУTPЬ

inside, to indicate movement inwards (внутрь is itself a form in the accusative case):

Bойскa´ бы´стро продви´нулись

The troops quickly moved inland.

внутрь стрaны´.

B ´

OзлE

by, near:

Bоздви´гли пa´мятник

They erected a monument near

во´злe собо´рa.

the cathedral.

BOКP ´

УГ

round:

путeшe´ствиe вокру´г свe´тa

a journey round the world

BПEPEди

in front of, ahead of:

Bпeрeди´ поéздa стоя´л сугро´б.

In front of the train was a snowdrift.

BCл ´

EдCTBиE

because of, owing to:

Bслe´дствиe тумa´нa мa´тч нe

Owing to the fog the match did not take

состоя´лся.

place.

длЯ

for in the sense of for the benefit of or for the purpose of: подa´рок для дру´гa

a present for (оne’s) friend

ору´диe для

a tool for

Note:

для is much narrower in meaning than English for, which may have to be translated by other prepositions such as зa + acc or нa + acc (see 10.4), or indeed by no preposition at all.

дO

(a)

before and until in a temporal sense:

´ то произошло´ до войны´.

This happened before the war.

Oн рaбо´тaeт до шeсти´ чaсо´в.

He works until six o’clock.

(b)

up to or as far as in a spatial sense:

Oн доe´хaл до Bлaдивосто´кa.

He went as far as Vladivostok.

из

(a)

out of, when movement is involved:

выходи´ть/вы´йти из ко´мнaты

to go out of/leave the room

вынимa´ть/вы´нуть из кaрмa´нa

to take out of one’s pocket

(b)

to indicate that sb or sth is of a particular origin, or that an object is made of or consists of sth, or is one out of a larger number:

из крeстья´нской сeмьи´

from a peasant family

плa´тьe из шёлкa

a silk dress

338

10.1

Valency of prepositions

обe´д из пяти´ блюд

a five-course dinner

однa´ из сa´мых лу´чших книг

оne of the best books

(c)

to indicate that some action results from a certain experience or

feeling:

из до´лгого о´пытa знa´ю, что. . . From long experience I know that. . .

Oнa´ э´то сдe´лaлa из любви´ к

She did this out of love for the children.

дe´тям.

и´з-зA

(a)

out from behind:

и´з-зa углa´

from round the corner

встaвa´ть/встaть и´з-зa столa´

to get up from the table

(b)

because of when the cause of sth is regarded unfavourably:

Oнa´ нe моглa´ рaбо´тaть и´з-зa

She could not work because of a

головно´й бо´ли.

headache.

и´з-ПOд

(a)

out from under :

и´з-под постe´ли

out from under the bed

торго´вля и´з-под прилa´вкa

under-the-counter trade

(b)

to indicate the purpose for which an object is designed:

бa´нкa из´-под вaрe´нья

a jam-jar

бо´чкa из´-под пи´вa

a beer-barrel

КP ´

OME

except, apart from:

Oнa´ ничeго´ нe e´лa кро´мe

She didn’t eat anything apart from

бу´лочки.

a bun.

M ´

EждУ

between; used with the genitive only in a few phrases:

читa´ть мe´жду строк

to read between the lines

мe´жду двух огнe´й

between the devil and the deep blue sea

(lit between two fires)

Mи

´ MO

past:

проходи´ть/пройти´ ми´мо до´мa to go past the house

HAПP ´

OTиB

opposite:

Mы договори´лись встрe´титься We agreed to meet opposite the church.

нaпро´тив цe´ркви.

HACчЁT

about, as regards:

Кaк нaсчёт вa´шeго доклa´дa?

What about your report?

OКOлO

(a)

near or by:

Oн сидe´л о´коло своeго´ другa´.

He was sitting by his friend.

339

Prepositions

(b)

around, about or approximately:

о´коло полу´ночи

around midnight

о´коло миллио´нa

about a million

OT (OTO)

(a)

away from:

Поéзд отхо´дит от плaтфо´рмы. The train is moving away from the platform.

(b)

to indicate distance from:

в двух киломe´трaх от цe´нтрa

two kilometres from the centre

в пяти´ мину´тaх ходьбы´ от

five minutes’ walk from the station

вокзa´лa

(c)

to indicate the source of sth:

узнaвa´ть/узнa´ть от кого´-н

to find out from sb

Я получи´л(a) от нeё письмо´.

I received a letter from her.

(d)

to indicate the date of a letter:

eго´ письмо´ от пe´рвого мa´ртa

his letter of 1 March

(e)

to indicate the purpose for which sth is intended:

ключ от двe´ри

the door key

пу´говицa от рубa´шки

a shirt button

(f )

to indicate that sth may be used to counter sth else:

стрaховa´ниe от огня´

fire insurance

тaблe´тки от головно´й бо´ли

headache tablets

(g)

to indicate that sth is prompted by a certain cause:

Cтол ломи´лся от eды´.

The table was groaning with food.

(h)

to describe the emotional state a person is in, when the feelings that prompted an action are being defined:

кипe´ть от нeгодовa´ния

to seethe with indignation

дрожa´ть от стрa´хa

to tremble with fear

(i)

in miscellaneous common phrases:

нe/дaлeко´ от

not/far from

врe´мя от врe´мeни

from time to time

от всeй души´

with all one’s heart

от и´мeни кого´-н

оn behalf of sb

OTHOCи

´ TEлЬHO

concerning; formal, used mainly in R3:

вопро´сы относи´тeльно

questions concerning procedure

процeду´ры

340

10.1

Valency of prepositions

ПOMи

´ MO

besides, apart from:

поми´мо всeго´ про´чeго

apart from everything else

П ´

OCлE

after:

по´слe у´жинa

after supper

ПOCPEди

in the middle of:

Oн стоя´л посрeди´ пло´щaди.

He was standing in the middle of the

square.

ПOCP ´

EдCTBOM

by means of, by dint of:

посрe´дством усe´рдной рaбо´ты

by means of hard work

ПP ´

OTиB

against:

про´тив тeчe´ния

against the current

выступa´ть про´тив си´льного

to take on [lit come out against] a strong

оппонe´нтa

opponent

ПУTЁM

by means of, by dint of:

путём хи´трости

by means of cunning

P ´

Aди

for the sake of:

рa´ди сeмьи´

for the sake of the family

C (CO)

(a)

off the surface of sth, down from:

снимa´ть/снять со столa´

to take off the table

приходи´ть/прийти´ с рaбо´ты

to come home from work

Note:

c translates away from or out of when the following noun is one of those nouns that require нa rather than в to translate in(to) or at/on to (see 10.1.6, нa (b–e)).

(b)

since in a temporal sense:

c нaчa´лa янвaря´

since the beginning of January

(c)

from in the sense of as a result of:

умирa´ть/умeрe´ть с го´лодa

to die of hunger/starve to death

co стыдa´

from shame

(d)

with in the sense of on the basis of:

c вa´шeго рaзрeшe´ния

with your permission

(e)

from:

Oн зa´пил с го´ря.

He took to drink from grief.

Note:

in this sense c is synonymous with (though a little more colloquial than) от as a preposition describing the emotional state that causes some action.

341

Prepositions

(f )

in miscellaneous common expressions:

c одно´й стороны´

оn the one hand

c друго´й стороны´

оn the other hand

c кaко´й стa´ти?

to what purpose? why should I?

c пe´рвого взгля´дa

at first sight

с тeх пор, кaк

since (conj)

с то´чки зрe´ния кого´-н

from the point of view of sb

CBEPX

on top of, over and above:

свeрх зaрплa´ты

оn top of wages

свeрх вся´кого ожидa´ния

beyond expectations

CBы

´ шE

over, more than; used mainly in numerical contexts:

свы´шe миллио´нa людe´й

more than a million people

CPEди

among, amid:

срeди´ молодёжи

among the young

Cрeди´ бe´жeнцeв – стaрики´,

Among the refugees are old men women,

жe´нщины и дe´ти.

and children.

(a)

by in the sense of near:

Oнa´ стоя´лa y окнa´.

She was standing by the window.

дом у мо´ря

a house by the sea

(b)

at in the sense of Fr chez and related meanings:

Mы поу´жинaeм у вaс.

We shall have supper at your place.

Oн eщё живёт у роди´тeлeй.

He still lives with his parents.

(c)

+ nouns and personal pronouns to indicate possession; in this sense

corresponds to the English verb to have (4.1):

У нaс eсть но´вaя мaши´нa.

We’ve got a new car.

У мeня´ к вaм однa´ про´сьбa.

I’ve got a request to make of you.

(d)

+ personal pronouns, in R1, in lieu of possessive pronoun:

Ca´шa у мeня´ до´брый чeловe´к.

My Sasha’s a good man.

(e)

+ nouns and personal pronouns in expressions indicating pain or

discomfort:

У мeня´ боли´т зуб.

I’ve got toothache.

У нeё боли´т го´рло.

She’s got a sore throat.

(f )

to denote dispossession or taking away:

зaнимa´ть/зaня´ть дe´ньги у

to borrow money from sb

кого´-н

У нaс о´тняли всё.

They’ve taken everything away

from us.

342

10.1

Valency of prepositions

10.1.4

Prepositions governing the dative

The commonest preposition governing the dative case is по, which is used much more widely with the dative than with the accusative or the prepositional, and which has many meanings. K is also very common, but the remaining prepositions which may govern the dative are

restricted in their use.

БлAГOдAPЯ

thanks to:

блaгодaряéё хлaднокро´вию

thanks to her presence

of mind

BOПPEКи

despite, contrary to:

вопрeки´ мои´м рaспоряжe´ниям

contrary to my instructions

K (KO)

(a)

towards, up to in a spatial sense:

Oн подхо´дит к мосту´.

He is going towards the bridge.

Oнa´ подошлa´ ко мнe´.

She came up to me.

(b)

by or towards in a temporal sense:

Oн придёт к вe´чeру.

He will arrive by evening.

(c)

in combination with many nouns to indicate attitude:

жa´лость к

pity for

интeрe´с к

interest in

любо´вь к

love for

нe´нaвисть к

hatred of

отношe´ниe к

attitude towards, relation to

прeзрe´ниe к

contempt for

рaвноду´шиe к

indifference towards

скло´нность к

inclination towards, penchant for

стрaсть к

passion for

стрeмлe´ниe к

striving for

увaжe´ниe к

respect for

(d)

in miscellaneous common phrases:

к сожaлe´нию

unfortunately

к счa´стью

fortunately

к тому´ жe

moreover, besides

к моeму´ удивлe´нию

to my surprise

к нa´шeму изумлe´нию

to our astonishment

к вa´шим услу´гaм

at your service

лицо´м к лицу´

face to face

ПO

(a)

along, down:

Oнa´ идёт по у´лицe.

She is walking along the street.

Oн спускaéтся вниз по лe´стницe.

He is coming down the stairs.

343

Prepositions

(b)

round in the sense of in various directions:

Oн хо´дит по ко´мнaтe.

He is pacing round the room.

броди´ть по го´роду

to wander round the town

(c)

according to, in accordance with:

по рaсписa´нию

according to the timetable

по подсчётaм экспe´ртов

according to the calculations

of experts

по официa´льному ку´рсу

according to the official rate

of exchange

(d)

by a means of communication:

по тeлeфо´ну

by telephone

по по´чтe

by post

по жeлe´зной доро´гe

by rail

(e)

at, on or in in the sense of in the field of or on the subject of: чeмпио´ны по футбо´лу

champions at football

спeциaли´ст по полити´чeским

a specialist on political matters

вопро´сaм

мини´стр по дeлa´м шотлa´ндии

Minister for Scottish affairs

уро´к по мaтeмa´тикe

a mathematics lesson

(f )

оn days of the week and in other expressions of time to indicate regular occurrence:

по понeдe´льникaм

оn Mondays

по прa´здникaм

оn holidays

по утрa´м

in the mornings

(g)

+ the numeral оди´н, оne, and also the nouns ты´сячa, thousand, and миллио´н, million, to indicate distribution; cf. по + acc in this sense with other numerals (see 11.4.9):

Mы получи´ли по одному´

We received a pound each.

фу´нту.

(h)

+ the negative particle нe in phrases in which inconsistency is indicated; in this sense по may sometimes be translated by the English for :

Oн нe по во´зрaсту высо´к.

He is tall for his age.

´ тa мaши´нa мнe нe по

I can’t afford this car.

кaрмa´ну.

Note:

as pointed out by Wade (see Sources), по has also made some progress in the language at the expense of more precise prepositions in phrases such as прогрa´ммa по литeрaту´рe (= прогрa´ммa литeрaту´ры), programme of literature; приз по стрeльбe´ (= приз зa стрeльбу´), prize for shooting.

344

10.1

Valency of prepositions

ПOд ´

OБHO

like, similar to:

кричa´ть подо´бно сумaсшe´дшeму

to shout like a madman

COГл ´

ACHO

in accordance with; official in tone, characteristic of R3b: соглa´сно глa´вной стaтьe´

in accordance with the main article of

догово´рa

the treaty

10.1.5

Prepositions governing the instrumental

зA

behind, beyond, on the far side of, and at or over in the sense of behind; when location is being defined; cf. зa + acc when movement into a position is indicated:

зa до´мом

behind the house

зa грaни´цeй

abroad (beyond the border)

зa бо´ртом

overboard

зa столо´м

at the table

зa роя´лeм

at the piano

зa пи´вом

over a beer

M ´

EждУ

between; followed only by the instrumental case except in a few fixed expressions in which it governs the genitive (see 10.1.3):

мe´жду пaрaллe´льными

between parallel lines

ли´ниями

мe´жду нa´ми

between ourselves

HAд (H ´

AдO)

over, above, on top of, used only with the instrumental:

Haд столо´м виси´т лю´стрa.

A chandelier hangs over the table.

нaдо мно´й

over me

П ´

EPEд (П ´

EPEдO)

used only with the instrumental:

(a)

in front of or before in a spatial sense:

сидe´ть пe´рeд тeлeви´зором

to sit in front of the television

пe´рeдо мной

in front of me

(b)

before in a temporal sense, especially shortly before; cf. до (see 10.1.3)

which may indicate any time before:

пe´рeд смe´ртью

before death

ПOд (П ´

OдO)

(a)

under, below, beneath, when actual or figurative location is defined; cf.

под + acc when movement into a position is indicated:

под мосто´м

under the bridge

под aрe´стом

under arrest

под влия´ниeм

under the influence

345

Prepositions

(b)

with a certain dressing, in culinary expressions, in which the literal meaning of under is retained:

ры´бa под томa´тным со´усом

fish in tomato sauce

яйцо´ под мaйонe´зом

egg mayonnaise

(c)

in the region of:

под Mоскво´й

in the region of Moscow

(d)

of in the names of battles:

би´твa под Полтa´вой

the Battle of Poltava

C (CO)

(a)

with, when with means together with or in the company of, or when it refers to some connection or attendant characteristic; cf. omission of c when with denotes instrument (see 10.4):

Oн пошёл в кино´ с сeстро´й.

He went to the cinema with his sister.

в связи´ с э´тим

in connection with this

чeловe´к с голубы´ми глaзa´ми

a person with (light) blue eyes

c рa´достью

gladly (with gladness)

(b)

together with personal pronouns in an inclusive sense, e.g.:

он c сeстро´й

he and his sister

мы с брa´том

my brother and I

мы с мa´тeрью

my mother and I

(c)

in the expression что c вa´ми/с тобо´й? What’s the matter with you?

(d)

with the passage of time, e.g. c кa´ждым днём, with each (passing) day 10.1.6

Prepositions governing the prepositional or locative

The prepositional case, as its name suggests, may only be used with

certain prepositions (в, нa, о, по, при). It is also sometimes called the locative case, since when used with the prepositions в and нa it may define location.

B (BO)

(a)

in or at to define location, the place where sth is situated or happening; cf. use of accusative when movement is involved:

Oн живёт в Mосквe´.

He lives in Moscow.

Mы сидe´ли в спa´льнe.

We were sitting in the bedroom.

(b)

to express the distance at which sth is located:

в одно´м киломe´трe от

a kilometre from the centre of town

цe´нтрa го´родa

в трёх мину´тaх ходьбы´ от

three minutes’ walk from the school

шко´лы

в пяти´ чaсa´х eзды´ от Пaри´жa

five hours’ journey/travel from Paris

346

10.1

Valency of prepositions

(c)

in or at in certain expressions of time (to indicate the month, year, decade, century, or period of one’s life, or stage in a period in which an event took place):

в янвaрe´

in January

в про´шлом году´

last year

в двaдцa´тых годa´х

in the 1920s

в двaдцa´том вe´кe

in the twentieth century

в дe´тствe

in childhood

в нaчa´лe го´дa

at the beginning of the year

в концe´ войны´

at the end of the war

(d)

at half past an hour:

в полови´нe пe´рвого

at half past twelve

(e)

to describe what sb is wearing:

Oнa´ в крa´сной блу´зкe.

She’s got a red blouse on.

Oн был в чёрном костю´мe.

He was wearing a black suit.

(a)

on, in or at to define location, the place where sth is situated; cf. use of accusative when movement is involved:

Кни´гa лeжи´т нa столe´.

The book is on the table.

(b)

on, in or at before many common nouns, where English-speakers might expect в to be used; many of these nouns denote some sort of occasion, or refer to both the place and the event or activity associated with it:

вe´чeр, party (reception)

нa вe´чeрe

войнa´, war

нa войнe´

вокзa´л, station

нa вокзa´лe

вы´стaвкa, exhibition

нa вы´стaвкe

зaво´д, factory

нa зaво´дe

зaсeдa´ниe, meeting, session

нa зaсeдa´нии

кa´фeдрa, department (in higher

нa кa´фeдрe

educational institution)

конфeрe´нция, conference

нa конфeрe´нции

концe´рт, concert

нa концe´ртe

куро´рт, resort

нa куро´ртe

курс, year (of course in higher

нa ку´рсe

educational institution)

лe´кция, lecture

нa лe´кции

о´пepa, opera

нa о´пeрe

пло´щaдь, (f ) square

нa пло´щaди

по´чтa, post-office

нa по´чтe

рaбо´тa, work

нa рaбо´тe

ры´нок, market

нa ры´нкe

свa´дьбa, wedding

нa свa´дьбe

собрa´ниe, meeting, gathering

нa собрa´нии

347

Prepositions

стa´нция, station

нa стa´нции

съeзд, congress

нa съe´здe

у´лицa, street

нa у´лицe

уро´к, lesson

нa уро´кe

фa´брикa, factory

нa фa´брикe

фaкультe´т, faculty (of higher

нa фaкультe´тe

educational institution)

фронт, front (mil)

нa фро´нтe

шa´хтa, mine

нa шa´хтe

экзa´мeн, examination

нa экзa´мeнe

(с)

in with points of the compass, islands, peninsulas, mountainous regions of the former USSR, and the names of streets and squares, e.g.

нa зa´пaдe

in the west

нa ю´гe

in the south

нa сe´вeро-восто´кe

in the north-east

нa о´стровe

оn the island

нa Ки´прe

in Cyprus

нa Ку´бe

in Cuba

нa Caхaли´нe

in Sakhalin

нa Aля´скe

in Alaska

нa Кaмчa´ткe

in Kamchatka

нa Кaвкa´зe

in the Caucasus

нa Урa´лe

in the Urals

нa Aрбa´тe

in the Arbat

нa He´вском проспe´ктe

in Nevskii Prospect

нa Крa´сной пло´щaди

in Red Square

Note 1

Formerly нa was also combined with Укрaи´нa, (the) Ukraine. However, now that Укрaи´нa is used to denote an independent country rather than a space, region or mere republic the preposition в is generally combined with it instead.

This usage puts Ukraine on a par linguistically with other former Soviet republics that have become independent countries (e.g. в Кaзaхстa´нe, in Kazakhstan). Omission of the definite article in English (i.e. in Ukraine; cf. the older expression in the Ukraine) achieves a similar purpose. It should be added that use of в rather than нa with Укрaи´нa helps to dissociate the word from the etymologically related word окрa´инa, outlying districts, borderland, which combines with нa.

With names of mountain ranges outside the former Soviet Union, on the other hand, в + prep is more usual, e.g. в ´

Aльпaх, in the Alps; в ´

Aндaх, in the Andes;

в Гимaлa´ях, in the Himalayas.

(d)

in with certain nouns (especially nouns denoting means of transport, e.g. aвто´бус, aвтомоби´ль, мaши´нa, поéзд) when presence in the place in question is associated with the activity for which the place is designed:

гото´вить нa ку´хнe

to cook in the kitchen

e´хaть нa aвто´бусe

to go by bus

cf. читa´ть гaзe´ту в aвто´бусe,

to read a newspaper on the bus

348

10.1

Valency of prepositions

(e)

in miscellaneous expressions of place or time, e.g.

нa моро´зe

in the frost

нa сквознякe´

in a draught

нa со´лнцe

in the sun

нa рaссвe´тe

at dawn

нa пe´нсии

retired (on a pension)

нa откры´том во´здухe

in the open air

нa свe´жeм во´здухe

in the fresh air

нa бу´дущeй нeдe´лe

next week

нa про´шлой нeдe´лe

last week

нa слe´дующeй нeдe´лe

the following week

нa э´той нeдe´лe

this week

O (OБ, OБO)

when the following noun or adjective begins with one of the vowels

a, о, y, э (i.e. a vowel without an initial j sound), then the letter б is generally added to о for the sake of euphony; о´бо occurs only in the expressions given below.

(a)

about, concerning:

Oн ду´мaeт о брa´тe.

He is thinking about his brother.

Поговори´м об э´том.

Let’s speak about this.

обо всём/всeх

about everything/everybody

обо мнe´

about me

(b)

with when the properties of sth are being described; this use is uncommon:

пa´лкa о двух концa´х

lit a two-ended stick, i.e. a double-edged

weapon

ПO

after, following, or on completion of; most commonly found with verbal nouns; this usage is rather literary or official and confined to R3, especially R3b:

по истeчe´нии ви´зы

оn expiry of the visa

по окончa´нии унивeрситe´тa

on completing university (i.e. on

graduation)

по получe´нии письмa´

оn receipt of the letter

ПPи

used only with the prepositional:

(a)

at the time of:

Oн жил при лe´нинe.

He lived at the time of Lenin.

достоe´вский нa´чaл писa´ть

Dostoevskii started writing in the

при Hиколaé пe´рвом.

reign of Nicholas I.

(b)

adjacent/attached to:

я´сли при фa´брикe

a nursery attached to the factory

буфe´т при вокзa´лe

a station buffet

349

Prepositions

(c)

in the presence of:

ссо´риться при гостя´х

to quarrel in front of the guests

(d)

given the availability of:

Я э´то сдe´лaю при трёх

I’ll do this on three conditions.

усло´виях.

(e)

while sth is being done (R3); in this sense the phrase with при is synonymous with an imperfective gerund:

Mы тeряéм мно´го проду´ктов

We lose a lot of foodstuffs while

при трaнспортиро´вкe.

they are being transported.

10.2

Prepositional phrases based on nouns

Prepositional phrases based on nouns, such as the following, are a

feature of the official register (see 1.3.4(b)):

в дe´лe + gen

in the matter of

в отли´чиe от + gen

unlike, in contrast to

в отношe´нии + gen

in respect of

в связи´ с + instr

in connection with

в си´лу + gen

by virtue of

в соотвe´тствии с + instr

in accordance with

в тeчe´ниe + gen

in the course of

в цe´лях + gen

with the object of

зa счёт + gen

at the expense of

нa основa´нии + gen

on the basis of

по ли´нии + gen

through the channel of

по нaпрaвлe´нию к + dat

in the direction of

по отношe´нию к + dat

with respect to

по причи´нe + gen

by reason of

по слу´чaю + gen

by reason of

10.3

Verbs followed by prepositions

Many verbs may be followed by certain prepositions. In the following sections some of the more common combinations of verb +

preposition are given.

10.3.1

Verbs followed by prepositions governing the accusative

B + acc

вe´рить/повe´рить в

to believe in

вмe´шивaться/вмeшa´ться в

to interfere, intervene in

вторгa´ться/вто´ргнуться в

to invade

игрa´ть в

to play (a game, sport)

одeвa´ть(ся)/одe´ть(ся) в

to dress (oneself ) in

350

10.3

Verbs followed by prepositions

поступa´ть/поступи´ть в

to enter (institution)

прeврaщa´ть(ся)/прeврaти´ть(ся) в

to turn/be turned into

стрeля´ть в

to shoot at (fixed target)

зA + acc

(a)

after verbs with the sense of taking hold of:

брaть/взять кого´-н зa´ руку

to take sb by the hand

вeсти´ кого´-н зa´ руку

to lead sb by the hand

дeржa´ть кого´-н зa´ руку

to hold sb by the hand

дeржa´ться зa (e.g. пeри´лa)

to hold on to (e.g. the handrail)

хвaтa´ть/схвaти´ть кого´-н

to seize sb by the scruff of the neck

зa ши´ворот

(b)

for the sake of:

боро´ться зa что´-н

to fight/struggle for sth

зaступa´ться/зaступи´ться зa

to stand up/plead/intercede for sb

кого´-н

пить/вы´пить зa (e.g. чьё-н

to drink to (e.g. sb’s health)

здоро´вьe)

срaжa´ться/срaзи´ться зa

to fight for (e.g. one’s country)

(e.g. ро´дину)

HA + acc

глядe´ть/поглядe´ть нa

to look at

дeли´ть/рaздeли´ть нa

to divide into

жa´ловaться/пожa´ловaться нa

to complain of

нaдe´яться нa

to hope for, count on, rely on

нaпaдa´ть/нaпa´сть нa

to attack, fall upon

отвeчa´ть/отвe´тить нa

to reply to (letter, question)

полaгa´ться/положи´ться нa

to count on, rely on

сeрди´ться/рaссeрди´ться нa

to be angry at, cross with

смотрe´ть/посмотрe´ть нa

to look at

соглaшa´ться/соглaси´ться нa

to agree to (but not to agree with)

10.3.2

Verbs followed by prepositions governing the genitive

из + gen

состоя´ть из

to consist of

стрeля´ть из

to shoot, fire (a weapon)

OT + gen

откa´зывaться/откaзa´ться от

to refuse, decline, turn down

отличa´ться/отличи´ться от

to differ from

стрaдa´ть от

to suffer from

Note:

стрaдa´ть от means to suffer from some temporary or slight problem as opposed to a chronic problem (in the latter meaning стрaдa´ть is followed by the instrumental).

C + gen

нaчинa´ть(ся)/нaчa´ть(ся) с чeго´-н

to begin with sth

сбивa´ть/сбить спeсь с кого´-н

to take sb down a peg

351

Prepositions

10.3.3

Verbs followed by prepositions governing the dative

K + dat

especially verbs indicating approach or attachment:

относи´ться/отнeсти´сь к

to relate to, have an attitude to

подходи´ть/подойти´ к

to approach, match, suit

приближa´ться/прибли´зиться к

to approach, draw near to

привлeкa´ть/привлe´чь к

to attract to

привыкa´ть/привы´кнуть к

to get used/grow accustomed to

прилипa´ть/прили´пнуть к

to stick/adhere to

прислоня´ться/прислони´ться к

to lean against

присоeдиня´ться/присоeдини´ться к

to join

стрeми´ться к

to strive towards, aspire to

Note:

the verb принaдлeжa´ть is followed by к when it denotes membership (cf.

ownership; see 11.1.8(c)), e.g. принaдлeжa´ть к полити´чeской пa´ртии, to belong to a political party.

ПO + dat

скучa´ть по кому´-н/чeму´-н

to miss sb/sth

стрeля´ть по чeму´-н

to shoot at

Note:

used if the target is a moving or mobile one, or if random shots are fired at a target; cf. стрeля´ть в + aсс, 10.3.1:

суди´ть по чeму´-н

to judge by sth

тосковa´ть по кому´-н/чeму´-н

to long for sb/sth

удaря´ть/удa´рить кого´-н/что´-н по

to hit sb/sth on sth (e.g. on the

чeму´-н (e.g. по щeкe´)

cheek)

10.3.4

Verbs followed by prepositions governing the instrumental

зA + instr

verbs indicating pursuit of sth, supervision or caring for sth:

идти´/пойти´ зa

to go for, fetch

нaблюдa´ть зa

to supervise

нaдзирa´ть зa

to supervise

присмa´тривaть/присмотрe´ть зa

to look after, keep an eye on

слeди´ть зa

to track, shadow, follow, keep

an eye on

слe´довaть/послe´довaть зa

to go after, follow

ухa´живaть зa

to court, look after, tend to

HAд + instr

возвышa´ться/возвы´ситься нaд

to tower over

госпо´дствовaть нaд

to dominate, tower above

издeвa´ться нaд

to mock

рaбо´тaть нaд

to work at/on

смeя´ться нaд

to laugh at

352

10.3

Verbs followed by prepositions

П ´

EPEд + instr

извиня´ться/извини´ться пe´рeд

to apologise to

прeклоня´ться/прeклони´ться пe´рeд

to admire, worship

C + instr

встрeчa´ться/встрe´титься с

to meet (by arrangement)

здоро´вaться/поздоро´вaться с

to greet, say hello to

знaко´миться/познaко´миться с

to meet, get acquainted with

прощa´ться/попрощa´ться с

to say goodbye to

рaсстaвa´ться/рaсстa´ться с

to part with

совe´товaться/посовe´товaться с

to consult

соглaшa´ться/соглaси´ться с

to agree with

ссо´риться/поссо´риться c

to quarrel with

стa´лкивaться/столкну´ться с

to collide with, run into

10.3.5

Verbs followed by prepositions governing the prepositional

B + prep

нуждa´ться в

to need, be in need of

обвиня´ть/обвини´ть в

to accuse of

признaвa´ться/признa´ться в

to confess, own up to

сомнeвa´ться в

to doubt, question

убeждa´ть(ся)/убeди´ть(ся) в

to convince/be convinced of

увeря´ть/увe´рить в

to assure of

учa´ствовaть в

to participate in, take

part in

HA + prep

говори´ть нa кaко´м-н языкe´

to speak in a language

Note:

used when one is specifying in which language communication takes place, e.g.

нa э´той сe´ссии конфeрe´нции говоря´т нa ру´сском, at this session of the conference they are speaking in Russian.

жeни´ться нa

to get married to (of man

marrying woman)

игрa´ть нa

to play (a musical

instrument)

остaнa´вливaться/остaнови´ться нa

to dwell on (e.g. of

conversation, lecture)

скa´зывaться/скaзa´ться нa

to tell on, have an effect on

O + prep

жaлe´ть о

to regret, be sorry about

зaбо´титься/позaбо´титься о

to worry about

знaть о

to know about

мeчтa´ть о

to dream about

рaсскa´зывaть/рaсскaзa´ть о

to recount, relate, tell

слы´шaть о

to hear about

сообщa´ть/сообщи´ть о

to inform about

узнaвa´ть/узнa´ть о

to find out about,

discover

353

Prepositions

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

In this section the most common Russian rendering of the principal

meanings of English prepositions is given, together with some

examples of equivalents of the English prepositions in certain idiomatic contexts.

ABOUT

(a)

meaning concerning: o + prep; пpo + acc (R1); нaсчёт + gen; относи´тeльно + gen ( with regard to; R3, esp R3b):

a book about football

кни´гa о футбо´лe

a film about the war

фильм про войну´ (R1)

What about your essay?

Кaк нaсчёт вa´шeго сочинe´ния?

concerning your letter of 1 June

относи´тeльно Ba´шeго письмa´ от

1-го ию´ня (R3b)

(b)

meaning around a place: по + dat:

She was pacing about the room.

Oнa´ рaсхa´живaлa по ко´мнaтe.

(с)

expressing approximation, rendered in one of the following ways:

о´коло + gen; c + acc (R1); приблизи´тeльно; примe´рно; by inversion of numeral and noun:

about two hours

о´коло двух чaсо´в

about a week

c нeдe´лю (R1)

about forty pounds

приблизи´тeльно со´рок фу´нтов

примe´рно со´рок фу´нтов

фу´нтов со´рок

ABOVE

(a)

meaning over, higher than: нaд + instr; вы´шe + gen: above the clouds

нaд облaкa´ми

above zero

вы´шe нуля´

(b)

in various expressions:

above all

прe´ждe всeго´

above-board

чe´стный, откры´тый

above suspicion

внe подозрe´ния

to get above oneself

зaзнaвa´ться/зaзнa´ться (R1)

ACCORDING TO

по + dat; соглa´сно + dat (R3):

according to Tolstoi

по Tолсто´му

according to the timetable

по рaсписa´нию

according to the treaty

соглa´сно догово´ру (R3)

Note:

the Gospel according to Mark, eвa´нгeлиe от Ma´ркa.

ACROSS

(a)

indicating movement to the other side: чe´рeз + acc:

a bridge across the river

мост чe´рeз рe´ку´

We went across the desert.

Mы пeрee´хaли чe´рeз пусты´ню.

Note:

with transitive verbs bearing the prefix пe´рe-, чe´рeз may be omitted, e.g.

пeрeходи´ть доро´гу, to cross the road.

354

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

(b)

indicating position on the other side of: нa то´й сторонe´ or по ту´

сто´рону + gen; зa + instr (= beyond); нaпро´тив (= opposite): There’s a park across the road.

По ту´ сто´рону доро´ги рaсполо´жeн

пaрк.

They live across the ocean.

Oни´ живу´т зa окea´ном.

They live across the road.

Oни´ живу´т нaпро´тив.

(c)

indicating movement over the surface of sth: по + dat:

Clouds were scudding across the sky. Oблaкa´ нeсли´сь по нe´бу.

(d)

crosswise, obstructing: попeрёк + gen:

A lorry stood across the road.

Грузови´к стоя´л попeрёк доро´ги.

AFTER

(a)

in temporal sense: по´слe + gen:

after work

по´слe рaбо´ты

(b)

indicating that a period of time has elapsed: чe´рeз + aсс; спустя´ +

acc; and also по´слe + gen:

after a while

чe´рeз нe´котороe врe´мя

after a week

спустя´ нeдe´лю

after a long absence

по´слe до´лгого отсу´тствия

(c)

indicating succession: зa + instr:

day after day

дeнь зa днём

page after page

стрaни´цa зa стрaни´цeй

(d)

meaning following or in pursuit of: зa + instr; вслeд зa + instr; вслeд + dat:

to run after a tram

бeжa´ть зa трaмвaéм

He got in after the driver.

Oн влeз вслeд зa води´тeлeм.

She shouted after him.

Oнa´ кричa´лa eму´ вслeд.

(e)

in certain expressions:

after all

в концe´ концо´в

after you (when inviting sb to

прошу´ вaс

go first)

named after

нa´звaнный по + dat; нa´звaнный в

чeсть + gen (= named in honour of )

to take after

быть похо´жим/похо´жeй нa + aсс

the day after tomorrow

послeзa´втрa

AGAINST

(a)

meaning in opposition to: про´тив + gen:

I voted against the plan.

Я проголосовa´л(a) про´тив плa´нa.

Note:

with verbs indicating contest against may be translated by c + instr, e.g. боро´ться

с кe´м-н, to fight against sb.

355

Prepositions

(b)

meaning in collision with: o + acc; нa + acc:

to bang one’s head against a wall

сту´кнуться голово´й о стe´ну

We ran up against a problem.

Mы нaтолкну´лись нa проблe´му.

(с)

meaning in contact with: к + dat:

He was leaning against the door.

Oн прислоня´лся к двe´ри.

(d)

indicating protection against: от + gen; нa слу´чaй + gen: to protect against disease

прeдохрaня´ть/прeдохрaни´ть от

зaболeвa´ния

precautions against infection

прeдосторо´жности нa слу´чaй

инфe´кции

ALONG

по + dat; also вдоль + gen (= down the side of ): She was walking along the path.

Oнa´ шлa по тропи´нкe.

We were driving along the border.

Mы e´хaли вдоль грaни´цы.

AMONG

(a)

meaning in the midst of : срeди´ + gen:

There was a Spanish girl among

Cрeди´ студe´нтов былa´ испa´нкa.

the students.

Among the little houses was a

Cрeди´ до´миков былa´ цe´рковь.

church.

(b)

meaning between: мe´жду + instr:

They quarrelled among themselves.

Oни´ поссо´рились мe´жду собо´й.

(c)

indicating one of a number, usually with superlative adjective: из +

gen:

The Don is among the longest rivers дон – однa´ из сa´мых дли´нных рeк

in Russia.

Pосси´и.

(a)

indicating location: в + рreр; нa + рreр:

at school

в шко´лe

at work

нa рaбо´тe

Note:

нa is used to express at with many Russian nouns which an English-speaker might expect would combine with в (see 10.1.6 for lists).

(b)

indicating location in the vicinity of or at sb’s house: y + gen: I left my car at the station.

Я остa´вил(a) мaши´ну у вокзa´лa.

I’m having dinner at a friend’s place. Я обe´дaю у дру´гa.

(c)

indicating location behind certain objects: зa + instr: at the table

зa столо´м

at the piano

зa роя´лeм

at the wheel (of car, boat)

зa рулём

356

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

(d)

in certain expressions defining point in time: в + prep:

at half past one

в полови´нe второ´го

at the beginning of April

в нaчa´лe aпрe´ля

at an early age

в рa´ннeм во´зрaстe

At what time?

B кото´ром чaсу´?

(e)

in other expressions defining point in time, including minutes past the hour: в + acc:

at one o’clock

в чaс

at midday

в по´лдeнь

at five past two

в пять мину´т трe´тьeго

at that time

в то врe´мя

at a given moment

в дa´нный момe´нт

at dusk

в су´мeрки

Note:

in expressions indicating time before the hour at is not translated, e.g. at five to ten, бeз пяти´ дe´сять.

(f )

in yet other expressions defining point in time: нa + prep:

at dawn

нa зaрe´/нa рaссвe´тe

at sunset

нa зaкa´тe

(g)

in the following expressions of time: нa + acc:

at Christmas

нa Pождeство´

at Easter

нa Пa´сху

(h)

indicating direction of an action: в + acc; нa + acc:

to shoot at sth

стрeля´ть во что´-н

to throw sth at sb

бросa´ть/бро´сить что´-н в кого´-н

to look at sth

смотрe´ть/посмотрe´ть нa что´-н

to point at sth

укa´зывaть/укaзa´ть нa что´-н

(i)

in miscellaneous other expressions:

at 100 ◦

при стa грa´дусaх

at 100 kilometres per hour

со ско´ростью сто киломe´тров

в чaс

at any price

любо´й цeно´й

at one’s own expense

зa свой счёт

at first sight

нa пe´рвый взгляд

at home

до´мa

at last

нaконe´ц

at least

по крa´йнeй мe´рe

at leisure

нa досу´гe

at night

но´чью

at once

срa´зу

at the request of

по про´сьбe

357

Prepositions

BECAUSE OF

из-зa + gen (esp for negative reason); блaгодaря´ + dat (= thanks to); вслe´дствиe + gen (= owing to; more formal, R2/3)

because of an earthquake

из-зa зeмлeтрясe´ния

thanks to your foresight

блaгодaря´ вa´шeй

прeдусмотри´тeльности

Owing to the rain the fair did not

Bслe´дствиe дождя´ я´рмaркa

take place.

нe состоя´лaсь.

BEFORE

(a)

in a temporal sense: до + gen (= previous to, earlier than); пe´рeд + instr (= [just] before):

before the revolution

до рeволю´ции

long before

зaдо´лго до

We changed before dinner.

Mы пeрeодe´лись пe´рeд обe´дом.

(b)

when before is followed by an English gerund it may be translated by пe´рeд + a verbal noun or by прe´ждe чeм + infin, e.g.

before leaving

пe´рeд отъe´здом

before replying

прe´ждe чeм отвe´тить

(c)

indicating location: пe´рeд + instr:

You see before you a list.

Bы ви´дитe пe´рeд собо´й спи´сок.

before the court

пe´рeд судо´м

(d)

in other expressions:

before long

ско´ро

before now

рa´ньшe

before witnesses

при свидe´тeлях

the day before yesterday

позaвчeрa´

BEHIND

(a)

indicating motion behind: зa + aсс:

The sun went behind a cloud.

Cо´лнцe зaшло´ зa о´блaко.

He put his hands behind his back.

Oн зaложи´л ру´ки зa´ спину.

(b)

indicating location: зa + instr:

She was walking behind me.

Oнa´ шлa зa мной.

He was hiding behind a tree.

Oн пря´тaлся зa дe´рeвом.

(c)

in other senses and expressions:

She is behind the other girls

Oнa´ отстaёт от други´х дe´вушeк в

in her class.

клa´ссe.

The team is behind the captain.

Комa´ндa поддe´рживaeт кaпитa´нa.

What’s behind this?

что зa э´тим кроéтся?

BELOW/

(a)

indicating motion below: под + aсс:

BENEATH

The swimmer dived below

Пловe´ц нырну´л под во´ду.

the water.

358

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

(b)

indicating location: под + instr:

below ground

под зeмлëй

below the surface

под повe´рхностью

(c)

meaning lower than, inferior to: ни´жe + gen:

below average

ни´жe срe´днeго

below a captain in rank

ни´жe кaпитa´нa по рa´нгу

beneath criticism

ни´жe вся´кой кри´тики

beneath my dignity

ни´жe моeго´ досто´инствa

BEYOND

= behind in the senses described in (a) and (b) above; also in certain expressions, e.g.

beyond belief

нeвeроя´тно

beyond one’s means

нe по срe´дствaм

beyond reach

внe досягaéмости

beyond one’s understanding

вы´шe понимa´ния

(a)

indicating agent or instrument or means of transport: instrumental

case with no preposition:

The play was written by Chekhov.

Пьe´сa былa´ нaпи´сaнa чe´ховым.

The building was destroyed by

здa´ниe бы´ло уничто´жeно пожa´ром.

a fire.

by train

поéздом

Note:

in phrases of the following sort, which lack a verb, the genitive may be used: a play by Chekhov

пьe´сa чe´ховa

a speech by the president

рeчь прeзидe´нтa

(b)

meaning in accordance with, and also indicating means of

communication: по + dat:

by nature

по приро´дe

by this clock

по э´тим чaсa´м

by television

по тeлeви´дeнию

(c)

meaning in the vicinity of : y + gen; о´коло + gen; во´злe + gen; ря´дом c + instr (= next to); вдоль + gen (= alongside): to sit by the window

сидe´ть у/о´коло окнa´

She was standing by the bus-stop.

Oнa´ стоя´лa у/о´коло aвто´бусной

остaно´вки.

She was sitting by me.

Oнa´ сидe´лa во´злe мeня´.

The shop is by the theatre.

Maгaзи´н нaхо´дится ря´дом с

тea´тром.

a track by the river

доро´жкa вдоль рeки´

(d)

meaning past: ми´мо + gen:

She went by the bank.

Oнa´ прошлa´ ми´мо бa´нкa.

359

Prepositions

(e)

meaning by way of: чe´рeз + acc:

She came in by the side entrance.

Oнa´ вошлa´ чeрeз боково´й вход.

(f )

meaning not after: к + dat:

by Saturday

к суббо´тe

It always snows by Christmas.

Bсeгдa´ идёт снeг к Pождeству´.

(g)

indicating a margin of difference, and also expressing multiplication, division or combination of dimensions: нa + acc:

older by one week

стa´ршe нa одну´ нeдe´лю

They increased my salary by a

Увeли´чили мою´ зaрплa´ту нa

thousand pounds.

ты´сячу фу´нтов.

ten by five

дe´сять нa пять

(h)

after verbs meaning to take hold of : зa + acc:

He took her by the hand.

Oн взял eё зa´ руку.

I seized him by the neck.

Я схвaти´л(a) eго´ зa шe´ю.

(i)

in miscellaneous other expressions:

by chance

случa´йно

by means of

посрe´дством + gen; путём + gen

by no means

во´всe нe; отню´дь нe (R3)

by mistake

по оши´бкe

by the way

мe´жду про´чим/кстa´ти

to know sb by sight

знaть кого´-н в лицо´

to learn sth by heart

вы´учить что´-н нaизу´сть

to pay by the month

плaти´ть/зaплaти´ть помe´сячно

one by one

оди´н зa одни´м

step by step

шaг зa шa´гом

DOWN

(a)

meaning along: по + dat:

down the corridor

по коридо´ру

He is going down the road.

Oн идёт по доро´гe.

(b)

meaning descending along: вниз по + dat; c + gen: I am going downstairs.

иду´ вниз (по лe´стницe).

downstream

вниз по тeчe´нию

They came down the hill.

Oни´ спусти´лись с горы´.

DURING

(a)

meaning at some point in: во врe´мя + gen:

He died during the war.

Oн у´мeр во врe´мя войны´.

I left during the interval.

Я ушёл/ушлa´ во врe´мя aнтрa´ктa.

(b)

meaning throughout, in the course of : в тeчe´ниe + gen; нa протяжe´нии

+ gen; these expressions are used mainly with nouns which have

temporal meaning:

During the 80s the USSR

B тeчe´ниe восьмидeся´тых годо´в

was collapsing.

CCCP рaспaдa´лся.

360

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

During the last century Russian

Ha протяжe´нии про´шлого вe´кa

literature flourished.

процвeтa´лa ру´сскaя литeрaту´рa.

(c)

meaning in the reign/rule/time of: при + prep:

censorship during the reign

цeнзу´рa при Hиколaé

of Nicholas

the terror during Stalin’s rule

тeрро´р при Cтa´линe

EXCEPT FOR

кро´мe + gen; зa исключe´ниeм + gen (= with the exception of ); исключa´я + acc (= excepting; R3):

Everybody left except me.

Bce ушли´ кро´мe мeня´.

All the students passed the exam

Bce студe´нты, зa исключe´ниeм

except for one.

одного´, сдa´ли экзa´мeн.

All the conditions were agreed

Bсe усло´вия бы´ли соглaсо´вaны

except for one.

исключa´я одно´.

FOR

(a)

indicating benefit, purpose, suitability or unsuitability: для + gen: a present for you

подa´рок для тeбя´

clothes for big people

одe´ждa для людe´й больши´х

рaзмe´ров

The book is useful for foreigners.

Учe´бник полe´зeн для инострa´нцeв.

Polluted air is bad for one’s health.

зaгрязнённый во´здух врe´дeн для

здоро´вья.

Note:

with verbs, or when a verb is understood, the person benefiting may be in the dative, e.g.

She bought a tie for me.

Oнa´ купи´лa мнe гa´лстук.

There’s a letter for you.

Baм письмо´. (R1)

(b)

expressing duration, time spent doing sth or distance covered:

accusative case with no preposition; в тeчe´ниe + gen:

He lay for a week in hospital.

Oн пролeжa´л нeдe´лю в больни´цe.

I have been living here for a year.

Я здeсь живу´ оди´н год.

I ran ( for) a mile.

Я пробeжa´л(a) ми´лю.

for a month

в тeчe´ниe мe´сяцa

(c)

indicating the amount of time action is expected to last, or that sth is arranged for a certain time or intended for a certain purpose: нa +

acc:

He has gone to Moscow for a week. Oн поe´хaл в Mоскву´ нa нeдe´лю.

closed for the winter

зaкры´то нa´ зиму

for a long time

нaдо´лго

forever

нaвсeгдa´

a meeting arranged for two o’clock

встрe´чa, нaзнa´чeннaя нa двa чaсa´

dinner for two

обe´д нa двои´х

a house for sale

дом нa продa´жу

for example

нaпримe´р

361

Prepositions

(d)

meaning in return for, and also indicating support for sb or sth: зa +

aсс:

I paid the cashier for the book

Я зaплaти´л(a) кaсси´ршe зa кни´гу.

We thanked them for their

Mы поблaгодaри´ли их зa

hospitality.

гостeприи´мство.

an eye for an eye

о´ко зa о´ко

He is voting for me.

Oн голосуéт зa мeня´.

(e)

meaning in search of: зa + instr:

I sent for a doctor.

Я послa´л(a) зa до´ктором.

(f )

after many nouns indicating attitude: к + dat:

love for one’s country

любо´вь к ро´динe

a passion for music

стрaсть к му´зыкe

respect for foreigners

увaжe´ниe к инострa´нцaм

(g)

in miscellaneous other expressions, e.g.

for and against

зa´ и про´тив

for certain

нaвeрнякa´

for the first time

в пe´рвый рaз/впeрвыé

for hours on end

цe´лыми чaсa´ми

for this reason

по э´той причи´нe

for God’s sake

рa´ди Бо´гa

as for me

что кaсaéтся мeня´

known for

извe´стный + instr

once for all

рaз нaвсeгдa´

There were no houses for miles

Ha мно´гиe ми´ли вокру´г нe´ было

around.

домо´в.

to cry for joy

плa´кaть от рa´дости

to get married for love

жeни´ться по любви´

He is tall for his age.

Oн высо´к нe по лe´тa´м.

to ask for

проси´ть/попроси´ть + aсс or gen оr

о + рreр

to long for

тосковa´ть по + dat

to look for

искa´ть + aсс оr gen

to be sorry for sb

жaлe´ть кого´-н

to wait for

ждaть/подождa´ть + aсс

or gen

FROM

(a)

meaning out of (i.e. the opposite of в + acc); originating from, made of : из + gen:

We went from Moscow to

Mы поe´хaли из Mосквы´ в

Minsk.

Mинск.

from afar

издaлeкa´

fruit from Spain

фру´кты из испa´нии

sausages made from pork

соси´ски, сдe´лaнныe из свини´ны

362

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

(b)

meaning away from (i.e. the opposite of до оr к); expressing distance from; indicating person from whom sth originates; indicating protection, freedom, concealment, separation, difference from; meaning by reason of: от + gen:

The train is drawing away from

Поéзд отхо´дит от плaтфо´рмы.

the platform.

from here/there

отсю´дa/отту´дa

two minutes from the centre

в двух мину´тaх от цe´нтрa

a present from my mother

подa´рок от моe´й мa´тeри

protection from the gale

зaщи´тa от урaгa´нa

exemption from taxation

освобождe´ниe от нaло´гов

cut off from civilisation

отрe´зaнный от цивилизa´ции

Russian architecture differs from

Pу´сскaя aрхитeкту´рa отличaéтся от

ours.

нa´шeй.

He collapsed from exhaustion.

Oн свaли´лся от изнeможe´ния.

(c)

meaning off, down from (i.e. the opposite of нa + acc; therefore used to mean from before nouns in 10.1.6, нa (b–e)); meaning by reason of in R1; and also since: c + gen:

The book fell from the shelf.

Кни´гa упa´лa с по´лки.

from east to west

c восто´кa нa зa´пaд

from the Urals

c Урa´лa

from above/below

свe´рху/сни´зу

from boredom

со ску´ки

from 1 April

c пe´рвого aпрe´ля

from childhood

c дe´тствa

(d)

indicating removal of sth that belongs to sb else: y + gen:

She took the toy away from the

Oнa´ отнялa´ у рeбёнкa игру´шку.

child.

He borrowed a mower from his

Oн зa´нял гaзонокоси´лку у сосe´дa.

neighbour.

(e)

preceding a gerund: infinitive form of verb:

You are preventing me from working. Tы мeшaéшь мнe рaбо´тaть.

(f )

in many other expressions:

from bad to worse

всё ху´жe и ху´жe

from behind

из´-зa + gen

from generation to generation

из поколe´ния в поколe´ниe

from time to time

врe´мя от врe´мeни

from under

из´-под + gen

change from a pound

сдa´чa с фу´нтa

The town dates from the tenth

Го´род отно´сится к дeся´тому вe´ку.

century.

a year from now

чeрeз го´д

363

Prepositions

(a)

indicating location; indicating a point in a month, decade, year,

century, time of life, or in the past, present or future; also describing attire: в + prep:

in the garden

в сaду´

I read it in a newspaper.

Я читa´л(a) э´то в гaзe´тe.

in March

в мa´ртe

in 1994

в ты´сячa дeвятьсо´т

дeвяно´сто чeтвёртом году´

in the last decade of the century

в послe´днeм дeсятилe´тии вe´кa

in the twentieth century

в двaдцa´том вe´кe

in old age

в стa´рости

in the future

в бу´дущeм

in a blue shirt

в си´нeй рубa´шкe

(b)

indicating motion into or duration of an action or period: в + acc: She went in the canteen.

Oнa´ вошлa´ в столо´вую.

in that age

в ту эпо´ху

(c)

expressing in with periods of the day and seasons of the year; expressing in in some adverbial phrases of manner; indicating material used in some action; also indicating method of arranging people or

things: instrumental case with no preposition:

in the morning

у´тром

in winter

зимо´й

in a loud voice

гро´мким го´лосом

to write in ink

писa´ть чeрни´лaми

in small groups

нeбольши´ми гру´ппaми

in rows

рядa´ми

(d)

meaning in with certain nouns listed in 10.1.6, нa (b–e); defining time in relation to the beginning of a certain period; also in certain set phrases: нa + prep:

in the street

нa у´лицe

in Cuba

нa Ку´бe

in the north

нa сe´вeрe

in the war

нa войнe´

in the kitchen (in order to cook)

нa ку´хнe

in the first minute of the second half нa пe´рвой мину´тe второ´го тa´ймa in my lifetime

нa моём вeку´

in old age

нa стa´рости лeт (R1)

(e)

indicating time taken to complete an action or meaning over a period: зa + acc:

Five centimetres of rain fell in one

зa оди´н дeнь вы´пaло пять

day.

сaнтимe´тров дождя´.

(f )

indicating time after a certain interval: чe´рeз + acc:

I’ll come back in a week.

Я вeрну´сь чeрeз нeдe´лю.

364

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

(g)

meaning on the subject of: по + dat:

an exam in geography

экзa´мeн по гeогрa´фии

research in electronics

исслe´довaния по элeктро´никe

(h)

meaning in the reign/time of, and in phrases indicating attendant circumstances: при + prep:

in Pushkin’s time

при Пу´шкинe

in the Brezhnev era

при Брe´жнeвe

in complete silence

при по´лном молчa´нии

(i)

in other expressions:

in advance

зaрa´нee

in all respects

во всeх отношe´ниях

in answer to

в отвe´т нa + aсс

in any case

во вся´ком слу´чae

in the circumstances

при э´тих усло´виях

in custody

под aрe´стом

in the end

в концe´ концо´в

in the evenings

по вeчeрa´м

in general

вообщe´

in good time

зaблaговрe´мeнно (R3)

in honour of

в чeсть + gen

in memory of

в пa´мять + gen

in a minute

сeйчa´с

in the name of

от и´мeни + gen

in my opinion

по моeму´ мнe´нию/по-моéму

(R1/2)

in respect of

по отношe´нию к + dat (R3)

in spite of

нeсмотря´ нa + aсс

in succession

подря´д

in turn

по о´чeрeди

to believe in God

вe´рить в Бо´гa

blind in one eye

слeпо´й/слeпa´я нa оди´н глaз

deaf in one ear

глухо´й/глухa´я нa одно´ у´хо

I’m in my twenties.

Mнe зa двa´дцaть.

an interest in politics

интeрe´с к поли´тикe

just in case

нa вся´кий слу´чaй

to be in power

быть у влa´сти

The word ends in a soft sign.

Cло´во кончaéтся нa мя´гкий знaк.

INSIDE

(a)

indicating location: в + рreр; внутри´ + gen:

inside the house

в до´мe

We do not know what is happening Mы нe знaéм, чт ò происхо´дит

inside the country.

внутри´ стрaны´.

(b)

indicating motion: generally в + acc:

to go inside the house

входи´ть/войти´ в дом

365

Prepositions

INSTEAD OF

вмe´сто + gen:

Have some juice instead of water.

Bы´пeйтe со´кa вмe´сто воды´.

Note:

this preposition should not be confused with вмe´стe, together.

INTO

(a)

generally в + acc:

They went into the hall.

Oни´ вошли´ в зaл.

to fall into a trap

попaдa´ть/попa´сть в лову´шку

The water turned into ice.

Bодa´ прeврaти´лaсь в лёд.

(b)

with some nouns denoting open spaces (see 10.1.6, нa (b–c)); after certain verbs with the prefix нa-; indicating division: нa + acc: She came out into the street.

Oнa´ вы´шлa нa у´лицу.

I cut the loaf into pieces.

Я рaзрe´зaл(a) хлeб нa куски´.

(a)

expressing possession or quantity and in other functions: genitive case with no preposition:

the roof of the house

кры´шa до´мa

the end of the lecture

конe´ц лe´кции

a slice of bread

ломо´ть хлe´бa

a litre of beer

литр пи´вa

a bunch of keys

свя´зкa ключe´й

the rector of the institute

рe´ктор институ´тa

(b)

expressing identity or definition: noun in apposition, or use of

adjective:

the city of London

го´род ло´ндон

the Isle of Wight

о´стров Уa´йт

the month of May

мe´сяц мaй

the University of Oxford

Oксфо´рдский унивeрситe´т

the Battle of Borodino

Бороди´нскоe срaжe´ниe

the Sea of Azov

Aзо´вскоe мо´рe

Lawrence of Arabia

ло´урeнс Aрaви´йский

(c)

meaning out of or consisting of; also indicating material of which sth is made: из + gen:

one of the students

оди´н/однa´ из студe´нтов

some of them

нe´которыe из них

a family of four

сeмья´ из чeтырёх чeловe´к

a table made of wood

стол из дe´рeвa

(d)

indicating amount, capacity, dimension: в + acc:

an article of twenty pages

стaтья´ в двa´дцaть стрaни´ц

an army of 100,000 men

a´рмия в сто ты´сяч солдa´т

a building of ten stories

здa´ниe в дe´сять этaжe´й

a field of three hectares

по´лe пло´щaдью в три

гeктa´рa

366

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

(e)

in other functions and expressions:

of course

конe´чно

your letter of 2 May

Ba´шe письмо´ от второ´го мa´я

the Battle of Stalingrad

би´твa под Cтaлингрa´дом

capable of anything

спосо´бный нa всё

characteristic of

хaрaктe´рный для + gen

typical of

типи´чный для + gen

a charge of murder

обвинe´ниe в уби´йствe

east of Moscow

к восто´ку от Mосквы´

envy of (one’s) neighbour

зa´висть к сосe´ду

news of the accident

вeсть об aвa´рии

a view of the forest

вид нa лeс

a сору of a document

ко´пия (с) докумe´нтa

The room smells of smoke.

B ко´мнaтe пa´хнeт тaбaко´м.

OFF

(a)

meaning off the surface of sth, down from: c + gen:

I took the saucepan off the stove.

Я снял(a´) кaстрю´лю с плиты´.

He fell off the ladder.

Oн упa´л с лe´стницы.

(b)

meaning at a distance from: от + gen:

two kilometres off the coast

нa рaсстоя´нии двух киломe´тров

от бe´рeгa

not far off

нeдaлeко´ от

нeподaлёку от

(c)

indicating dispossession or removal: y + gen:

I borrowed a book off him.

Я взял(a´) у нeго´ кни´гу почитa´ть.

(R1)

He broke the handle off the door.

Oн отби´л ру´чку у двe´ри.

(d)

in certain expressions:

off the beaten track

по нeпроторённой доро´гe

off colour (unwell)

нeздоро´вый/нeздоро´вaя

(not in form)

нe в фо´рмe

off work

нe нa рaбо´тe

gооds at ten per cent off

товa´ры нa дe´сять процe´нтов ни´жe

обы´чной цeны´

Keeр off the grass.

He ходи´ть по трaвe´.

She’s off her food.

У нeё нeт aппeти´тa.

He’s off his rocker.

Oн спя´тил с умa´. (R1)

(a)

indicating location: нa + рreр:

He’s sitting on a stool.

Oн сиди´т нa тaбурe´ткe.

оn board

нa борту´

(b)

indicating movement on to: нa + aсс:

He climbed on the roof.

Oн влeз нa кры´шу.

They got on the train.

Oни´ сe´ли нa поéзд.

367

Prepositions

(c)

оn a day of the week: в + acc:

on Wednesday

в срe´ду

on that day

в тот дeнь

(d)

repeatedly on a certain day: по + dat pl:

on Saturdays

по суббо´тaм

on free days

по свобо´дным дням

(e)

expressing a date: genitive case with no preposition:

on 1 March

пe´рвого мa´ртa

on 22 June

двa´дцaть второ´го ию´ня

(f )

in certain other expressions of time: нa + acc:

on the following day

нa слe´дующий дeнь

on the fourth day

нa чeтвёртый дeнь

on this occasion

нa э´тот рaз

(g)

meaning immediately after, on the expiry of: по´слe + gen; по + prep (R3):

on arrival

по´слe приe´здa

on expiry of the visa

по истeчe´нии ви´зы

On graduating she went abroad.

По окончa´нии унивeрситe´тa онa´

поe´хaлa зa грaни´цу.

(h)

indicating means of transport; also in certain expressions of time:

instrumental case with no preposition:

on a bus

aвто´бусом

on horseback

вeрхо´м

on a spring evening

вeсe´нним вe´чeром

(i)

meaning on the subject of: по + dat; o + prep: a lecture on geology

лe´кция по гeоло´гии

an article on Blok

стaтья´ о Бло´кe

( j)

indicating a means of communication: по + dat:

I heard about it on the radio.

Я слы´шaл(a) об э´том по рa´дио.

(k)

in other meanings and expressions:

on average

в срe´днeм

on no account

ни в коéм слу´чae

оn behalf of

от и´мeни + gen

on the contrary

нaоборо´т

on leave

в о´тпускe

on the left

слe´вa

on the right

спрa´вa

on the occasion of

по слу´чaю + gen

on the one hand

с одно´й стороны´

368

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

on the other hand

с друго´й стороны´

on one condition

при одно´м усло´вии

on purpose

нaро´чно

on the quiet

потихо´ньку (R1)

on time

во´-врeмя

on time (according to

по рaсписa´нию

timetable)

on the way home

по доро´гe домо´й

cash on delivery

с уплa´той при достa´вкe

The house is on fire.

дом гори´т.

I had no money on me.

У мeня´ нe´ было дe´нeг с собо´й.

The workers are on strike.

Paбо´чиe бaсту´ют.

to work on sth

рaбо´тaть нaд чe´м-н

OPPOSITE

про´тив + gen; нaпро´тив + gen:

They were sitting opposite each

Oни´ сидe´ли друг про´тив дру´гa.

other.

He is standing opposite the

Oн стои´т нaпро´тив Крeмля´.

Kremlin.

Note:

in the meaning of opposite про´тив and нaпро´тив are interchangeable, but only про´тив may mean against.

OUT OF

(a)

in most meanings: из + gen:

She came out of the shop.

Oнa´ вы´шлa из мaгaзи´нa.

He took a coin out of his pocket.

Oн вы´нул монe´ту из кaрмa´нa.

a chapter out of a novel

глaвa´ из ромa´нa

four out of five students

чe´твeро из пяти´ студe´нтов

It’s made out of iron.

Cдe´лaно из жeлe´зa.

(b)

meaning outside: внe + gen; зa + instr (= beyond ): out of control

внe контро´ля

out of danger

внe опa´сности

out of earshot

внe прeдe´лов слы´шимости

out of reach/range

внe прeдe´лов досягaéмости

out of sight

внe по´ля зрe´ния

out of turn

внe о´чeрeди

out of town

зa´ городом

out of the country

зa грaни´цeй

(с)

indicating cause or motive: из + gen; от + gen; c + gen (R1): out of respect for you

из увaжe´ния к вaм

out of pity

из/от жa´лости

out of spite

от зло´сти (R2)

(d)

in certain other expressions:

out of breath

зaпыхa´вшийся (act part)

зaпыхa´вшись (gerund)

369

Prepositions

out of doors

нa у´лицe/нa дворe´

(in the open air)

нa откры´том во´здухe

out of fashion

нe в мо´дe

out of order

нe в поря´дкe

(not working)

нeиспрa´вный/нe рaбо´тaeт

Out of my sight!

Убирa´йся!

out of work

бeз рaбо´ты

to get out of bed

встaвa´ть/встaть с постe´ли

We’re out of bread.

У нaс ко´нчился хлeб.

It’s out of the question.

Oб э´том нe мо´жeт быть и рe´чи.

OUTSIDE

(a)

meaning in the vicinity of : о´коло + gen; y + gen; пe´рeд + instr (= in front of ):

I met her outside the park.

Я встрe´тился с нeй о´коло/у пa´ркa.

The car’s outside the house.

Maши´нa стои´т пeрeд до´мом.

(b)

meaning on the outside of, beyond: внe + gen; зa + instr; зa прeдe´лaми +

gen (= beyond the bounds of ):

It’s outside my competence.

´ то внe моe´й компeтe´нции.

There was a policeman outside the

зa окно´м стоя´л полицe´йский.

window.

He is not known outside Russia.

Oн нeизвe´стeн зa прeдe´лaми

Pосси´и.

OVER

(a)

meaning across: чe´рeз + aсс; зa + aсс:

a bridge over the river

мост чeрeз рe´ку´

He crossed over the threshold.

Oн пeрeшёл зa поро´г.

to throw overboard

выки´дывaть/вы´кинуть зa´ борт

Note:

чe´рeз may be omitted when the verb bears the prefix пepe-, which may carry the same meaning (see also 10.1.2).

(b)

indicating location beyond, on the other side of : зa + instr; по ту

сто´рону + gen:

I heard a voice over the fence.

Я услы´шaл(a) го´лос зa и´згородью.

They live overseas.

Oни´ живу´т зa´ морeм.

the forest over the border

лeс по ту сто´рону грaни´цы

(c)

meaning above: нaд + instr:

A chandelier hangs over the table.

Haд столо´м виси´т лю´стрa.

A threat hangs over us.

Haд нa´ми виси´т угро´зa.

(d)

meaning over the top of: повe´рх + gen:

to look over one’s spectacles

смотрe´ть повe´рх очко´в

(e)

meaning on to: нa + acc:

She drew a blanket over the child.

Oнa´ нaтяну´лa одeя´ло нa

рeбёнкa.

370

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

(f )

meaning across the surface of sth; also by a means of communication: по + dat:

A boat sped over the water.

Кa´тeр помчa´лся по водe´.

all over the world

по всeму´ свe´ту

over the radio

по рa´дио

(g)

meaning in the course of a certain period: в тeчe´ниe + gen; зa + acc: The situation deteriorated over

Cитуa´ция ухудшa´лaсь в тeчe´ниe

many years.

мно´гих лeт.

They have all fallen ill over

Oни´ всe зaболe´ли зa послe´днюю

the last week.

нeдe´лю.

Note:

в тeчe´ниe emphasises duration and therefore occurs with an imperfective verb, whilst зa emphasises the completed nature of the event and therefore tends to dictate the use of a perfective.

(h)

meaning more than: бо´льшe + gen; свы´шe + gen (used with numerals); свeрх + gen (= over and above, in excess of ): He drank over a litre of wine.

Oн вы´пил бо´льшe ли´трa винa´.

over a million voters

свы´шe миллио´нa избирa´тeлeй

over (and above) the norm

свeрх но´рмы

(i)

in other expressions:

over a cup of tea

зa чa´шкой чa´я

It’s over my head.

´ то вы´шe моeго´ понимa´ния.

to go head over heels

полeтe´ть кувырко´м

to stumble over sth

спотыкa´ться/споткну´ться о что´-н

PAST

(a)

indicating motion alongside and beyond sth: ми´мо + gen:

He ran past me.

Oн пробeжa´л ми´мо мeня´.

(b)

indicating location beyond: зa + instr:

The theatre is past the church.

Tea´тр нaхо´дится зa цe´рковью.

(c)

meaning after: по´слe + gen; зa + acc; по´зжe + gen: past midnight

по´слe полу´ночи/зa´ полночь

She’s past fifty.

Eй зa пятьдeся´т.

It’s past ten o’clock.

По´зжe дeсяти´.

(d)

in expressions of time: no preposition:

ten past one

дe´сять мину´т второ´го

at half past six

в полови´нe сeдьмо´го

ROUND

(a)

indicating rotation and encirclement: вокру´г + gen; круго´м (+ gen; encirclement only):

All the guests were sitting round

Bce го´сти сидe´ли вокру´г столa´.

the table.

371

Prepositions

The earth revolves round

зeмля´ врaщaéтся вокру´г со´лнцa.

the sun.

(b)

expressing approximation: о´коло + gen:

round (about) midnight

о´коло полу´ночи

round a thousand dollars

о´коло ты´сячи до´ллaров

Note:

the adverbs приблизи´тeльно, approximately, and примe´рно, roughly, may also be used, with no preposition, to express approximation with numbers, e.g.

примe´рно сто фу´нтов, round a hundred pounds.

(с)

expressing motion in various directions (often with indeterminate

verbs of motion): по + dat:

She’s walking round the garden.

Oнa´ хо´дит по сa´ду.

His things are scattered round

Eго´ вe´щи рaзбро´сaны по ко´мнaтe.

the room.

(d)

after verbs bearing the prefix об- round may have no prepositional equivalent:

He walked round the puddle.

Oн обошёл лу´жу.

The nurse put pillows round him.

Meдсeстрa´ обложи´лa eго´

поду´шкaми.

THROUGH

(a)

indicating passage through: чe´рeз + acc (also meaning via); сквозь +

acc (often implying difficulty); в + acc:

I went through France.

Я проe´хaл(a) чe´рeз рa´нцию.

We went to Moscow through

Mы проe´хaли в Mоскву´ чe´рeз

Minsk.

Mинск.

He squeezed through the crowd.

Oн проти´снулся сквозь толпу´.

through a thick fog

сквозь густо´й тумa´н

He was looking through the

Oн смотрe´л в окно´.

window.

(b)

meaning around, over, through an element: по + dat:

He was walking through the streets. Oн шёл по у´лицaм.

The ball was flying through the air. Mяч лeтe´л по во´здуху.

(c)

meaning for the duration of, throughout: accusative case with no preposition:

It rained all through/throughout

Beсь дeнь шёл дождь.

the day.

Work will continue through

Paбо´тa бу´дeт продолжa´ться всю´

the winter.

зи´му.

(d)

meaning as a result of : блaгодaря´ + dat (= thanks to a favourable cause); из-зa + gen (= because of some unfavourable cause); по + dat (= for some abstract reason):

through far-sightedness

блaгодaря´ прeдусмотри´тeльности

372

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

He had to leave work through

Eму´ пришло´сь уйти´ с рaбо´ты из-зa

illness.

болe´зни.

to know through experience

знaть по о´пыту

(e)

in other expressions:

to get through an exam

сдaть экзa´мeн

to go through a fortune

промa´тывaгь/промотa´ть состоя´ниe

to see through sb

ви´дeть кого´-н нaскво´зь

(a)

expressing indirect object: dative case without any preposition:

He gave his brother a book.

Oн дaл брa´ту кни´гу.

Tell us what to do.

Cкaжи´тe нaм, чт ò дe´лaть.

Greetings to you.

Привe´т тeбe´/вaм!

(b)

indicating direction of movement: в + acc; нa + acc (with certain nouns; see 10.1.6, нa (b–e)); к + dat (with persons and with sth approached but not entered):

We are going to Russia.

Mы e´дeм в Pосси´ю.

She is going to a concert.

Oнa´ идёт нa концe´рт.

to the left/right

нaлe´во/нaпрa´во

I am going to the rector.

Я иду´ к рe´ктору.

Come to the table.

Подойди´(тe) к столу´.

to the south of Voronezh

к ю´гу от Bоро´нeжa

(c)

indicating distance, limit or extent: до + gen; по + acc (= up to and including):

the distance from London to

рaсстоя´ниe от ло´ндонa до

Moscow

Mосквы´

to the end

до концa´

to a certain extent

до нe´которой стe´пeни

He got soaked to the skin.

Oн промо´к до мо´згa костe´й.

to 1 Maу

по пe´рвоe мa´я

He was standing (up) to his

Oн стоя´л по колe´ни в водe´.

knees in water.

(d)

indicating attachment, membership, proximity: к + dat:

to add five to ten

прибaвля´ть/прибa´вить пять

к дeсяти´

to belong [expressing

принaдлeжa´ть к клу´бу

membership] to a club

a preface to a book

прeдисло´виe к кни´гe

shoulder to shoulder

плeчо´м к плeчу´

(e)

expressing time to the hour: a construction with бeз + gen: five to ten

бeз пяти´ дe´сять

(f )

meaning to the accompaniment of a sound: под + acc:

to dance to a record

тaнцeвa´ть под плaсти´нку

373

Prepositions

(g)

in miscellaneous expressions:

to my surprise

к моeму´ удивлe´нию

an answer to sth

отвe´т нa что´-н

a tendency to

скло´нность к + dat

a claim to sth

прeтe´нзия нa что´-н

a right to sth

прa´во нa что´-н

an exception to a rule

исключe´ниe из прa´вилa

the key to a door

ключ от двe´ри

compared to

по срaвнe´нию с + instr

harmful to

врe´дный для + gen

near to

бли´зкий от + gen

similar to

похо´жий нa + aсс

a visit to (the) Ukraine

посeщe´ниe Укрaи´ны

I have been to Moscow.

Я был(a´) в Mосквe´.

TOWARDS

(a)

in most meanings: к + dat:

They were travelling towards

Oниé´хaли к о´зeру.

the lake.

He was standing with his back

Oн стоя´л ко мнe спино´й.

towards me.

attitude towards

отношe´ниe к

(b)

in other expressions:

towards evening

под вe´чeр

responsibility towards

отвe´тствeнность пe´рeд + instr

UNDER

(a)

indicating location: под + instr:

to sit under the trees

сидe´ть под дeрe´вьями

to be under suspicion

быть под подозрe´ниeм

(b)

indicating motion: под + acc:

She shoved a note under the door.

Oнa´ подсу´нулa зaпи´ску под двeрь.

(c)

meaning according to: по + dat:

under Roman law

по ри´мскому прa´ву

(d)

in other expressions:

under five dollars

мe´ньшe пяти´ до´ллaров

children under five

дe´ти до пяти´ лeт

under those circumstances

при тeх обстоя´тeльствaх

under Lenin

при лe´нинe

under one’s arm

под мы´шкой

under repair

в рeмо´нтe

The matter is under consideration.

дe´ло рaссмa´тривaeтся. (R3b)

UNTIL

(a)

in most contexts: до + gen:

until Wednesday

до срeды´

until three o’clock

до трёх чaсо´в

374

10.4

Rendering of English prepositions in Russian

(b)

meaning up to and including: по + acc:

The visa is valid until 1 March.

Bи´зa дeйстви´тeльнa по пe´рвоe

мa´ртa.

(с)

with negated verb: то´лько:

I shall not do it until tomorrow.

Я то´лько зa´втрa сдe´лaю э´то.

(a)

indicating location: нa + рreр:

The cat is up the tree.

Ко´шкa сиди´т нa дe´рeвe.

(b)

indicating motion: нa + aсс; (ввeрх) по + dat:

He went up the hill.

Oн пошёл нa´ гору.

The smoke goes up the chimney.

дым поднимaéтся по трубe´.

They sailed up the Volga.

Oни´ поплы´ли ввeрх по

Bо´лгe.

WITH

(a)

in the majority of meanings, especially in the company of, together with: c + instr:

I work with him.

Я рaбо´тaю с ним.

She went there with a friend.

Oнa´ пошлa´ тудa´ с дру´гом.

a man with a red face

мужчи´нa с румя´ным лицо´м

with pleasure

с удово´льствиeм

I agree with you.

Я соглaшa´юсь с вa´ми.

(b)

indicating instrument; also indicating what sth is covered or

surrounded by: instrumental case without a preposition:

She is eating with a spoon.

Oнaéст ло´жкой.

I saw it with my own eyes.

Я ви´дeл(a) э´то свои´ми глaзa´ми.

The lake is covered with ice.

Óзeро покры´то льдом.

a house surrounded with flowers

дом окружённый цвeтa´ми

(c)

indicating presence at sb’s home, or entrustment of sth to sb: y + gen: I lodge with them.

Я снимa´ю ко´мнaту у них.

I left my things with the concierge.

Я остa´вил(a) свои´ вe´щи у

вaхтёрa.

(d)

indicating source or cause: от + gen:

He is trembling with cold.

Oн дрожи´т от хо´лодa.

She is blushing with shame.

Oнa´ крaснeéт от стыдa´.

(e)

in miscellaneous other functions:

with all one’s heart

от всeй души´

with the exception of

зa исключe´ниeм + gen

with regard to

в связи´ с + instr

по отношe´нию к + dat (R3)

что кaсaéтся + gen

with your consent

с вa´шeго соглa´сия

375

Prepositions

with your permission

с вa´шeго рaзрeшe´ния

to go with/match

подходи´ть к + dat

satisfied with

дово´лeн/дово´льнa + instr

to speak with a stutter

говори´ть зaикa´ясь

Down with the government!

доло´й прaви´тeльство!

What’s it to do with me?

При чём тут я?

376

11 Syntax

11.1

Use of the cases

A sound understanding of the functions of the cases in Russian is

crucial to an ability to master the language, for grammatical

relationships in the sentence, and therefore meaning, depend on

inflection. The sections which follow examine the basic function

or functions of each of the six cases of modern Russian and also the use of those cases with verbs. The use of the case after prepositions, some of which may invariably govern it and others of which govern it when they have certain meanings, is examined thoroughly in 10.1–10.3.

11.1.1

Use of the nominative

(a)

The nominative is the case used to indicate the subject of a clause: Кни´гa лeжa´лa нa столe´.

The book lay on the table.

B сaду´ сидe´лa ко´шкa.

A cat was sitting in the garden.

ивa´н зовёт брa´тa.

Ivan is calling his brother.

Note:

in Russian the subject may follow the verb; it is inflection, not word order (on which see 11.14), that makes clear the grammatical relationships in the sentence.

(b)

The complement of the verb to be may also stand in the nominative when the verb to be is not actually stated, i.e. in the present tense, e.g.

Mоя´ мaть – врaч.

My mother is a doctor.

Oн – грузи´н.

He is a Georgian.

A nominative complement is also used when the verb form eсть is used, in the sense of is, and the complement is the same as the subject (see 4.2), e.g.

Прa´вдa eсть прa´вдa.

The truth is the truth.

When the verb to be occurs in the past tense a nominative complement may be used (although the instrumental is now preferred; see

11.1.10(e)), e.g.

Oн был выдaю´щийся писa´тeль.

He was an outstanding writer.

11.1.2

Use of the accusative

(a)

The principal use of the accusative case is to express the direct object of a transitive verb, e.g.

Я читa´ю кни´гу.

I am reading a book.

377

Syntax

Oн пи´шeт письмо´.

He is writing a letter.

Oнa´ лю´бит отцa´.

She loves her father.

Note 1

See 11.1.3 on the animate category of nouns.

No reflexive verb, with the partial exception of слу´шaться/послу´шaться (see

11.1.5(b)), may govern the accusative.

(b)

The accusative is also used, without any preposition, to express the duration of an action, the distance covered, price, and weight. In

the first two meanings it often follows a verb with the prefix пpo-

(see 8.3, пpo- (c)).

Paбо´тa продолжa´лaсь всю зи´му.

Work continued all winter.

Oни´ проe´хaли ты´сячу

They travelled a thousand kilometres.

киломe´тров.

дом сто´ит миллио´н до´ллaров.

The house costs a million dollars.

Maши´нa вe´сит то´нну.

The car weighs a tonne.

11.1.3

Use of case to denote animate direct object

Many animate nouns must be put in the genitive case when they are

used as direct objects. This usage arises from the fact that in most types of noun the nominative and accusative forms have come to coincide.

Given the flexibility of Russian word order, clauses in which both

subject and object are animate could be ambiguous were the

grammatical forms of subject and object to remain undifferentiated.

(Take, for example, the hypothetical statement ивa´н уби´л брaт.) By marking the object by use of the genitive form, which in all categories of noun is distinct from the accusative, a speaker avoids confusion as to which noun is subject and which is object (cf. the similar function of the preposition a to mark an animate direct object in Spanish, e.g. Él matоá un toro, He killed a bull ).

Animate nouns include those denoting people, animals, birds,

reptiles, fish and insects, and embrace all three genders. The following table shows which types of Russian animate noun have to be marked in this way when they function as the direct object of a transitive verb.

accusative form preserved

genitive form required

masculine singular

брa´тa

brother

ти´грa

tiger

орлa´

eagle

пито´нa

python

кa´рпa

carp

пaукa´

spider

masculine plural

сыновe´й

sons

слоно´в

elephants

378

11.1

Use of the cases

со´колов

falcons

крокоди´лов

crocodiles

осeтро´в

sturgeons

мурaвьёв

ants

feminine singular and

masculine singular in -a/-я

feminine plural

жe´нщину

woman

дe´вушeк

girls

ло´шaдь

horse

собa´к

dogs

лa´сточку

swallow

соро´к

magpies

змeю´

snake

кобр

cobras

aку´лу

shark

щук

pikes

бa´бочку

butterfly

пчёл

bees

Ca´шу

Sasha

дя´дю

uncle

neuter singular

neuter plural

должностны´х лиц

officials

млeкопитa´ющee

mammal

млeкопитa´ющих

mammals

прeсмыкa´ющeeся

reptile

прeсмыкa´ющихся

reptiles

нaсeко´моe

insect

нaсeко´мых

insects

miscellaneous

толпу´

crowd

нaро´д

a people

войскa´ (n pl)

troops

труп

dead body,

мeртвeцa´

dead man

corpse

поко´йникa

the deceased

дa´му

queen (cards)

фeрзя´

queen (chess)

короля´

king (cards,

chess)

тузa´

ace (cards)

вaлe´тa

jack (cards)

(пусти´ть)

to fly a kite

бумa´жного змe´я

Note 1

The words Mapc, Meрку´рий, Heпту´н, Плуто´н, Урa´н, Юпи´тeр are treated as inanimate when they denote planets in the solar system but as animate when they denote the classical gods after whom the planets are named, e.g.

нaблюдa´ть Юпи´тeр, to observe Jupiter, but прогнe´вaть Юпи´тeрa, to anger Jupiter.

Usage is less clear-cut when the direct object denotes a low or as yet unborn form of life, e.g. бaктe´рия, bacterium; бaци´ллa, bacillus; зaро´дыш, foetus; личи´нкa, larva, grub; микро´б, microbe; эмбрио´н, embryo. In everyday speech such objects tend to be treated as inanimate, e.g. изучa´ть бaктe´рии, to study bacteria, but in scientific parlance they may be treated as animate (бaктe´рий).

379

Syntax

11.1.4

Basic uses of the genitive

(a)

To express possession, origin, relationship of part to whole, the nature, quality, measurement, or quantity of sth, e.g.

кни´гa моeго´ брa´тa

my brother’s book

стихи´ Пу´шкинa

Pushkin’s poetry

пe´рвый вaго´н поéздa

the first coach of the train

мужчи´нa большо´го ро´стa

a man of large stature

зa´пaх цвeто´в

the scent of flowers

мeтр ткa´ни

a metre of fabric

литр винa´

a litre of wine

Note:

the genitive case is not used in a number of contexts where English has of (see

10.4, of (b)).

(b)

After words indicating quantity, e.g.

мa´ло врe´мeни

little/not much time

мно´го цвeто´в

many/a lot of flowers

нeмно´го студe´нтов

not many/a few students

нe´сколько пe´сeн

a few/some/several songs

Cко´лько винa´?

How much wine?

Cто´лько впeчaтлe´ний!

How/So many impressions!

(c)

To denote a certain quantity, some of a given object (cf. Fr du pain, de l’eau, etc.), e.g.

нaли´ть молокa´

to pour some milk

Oнa´ ничeго´ нe e´лa, то´лько

She didn’t eat anything, she just

вы´пилa чa´я.

drank some tea.

Note 1

The accusative case in such contexts would denote not some of the object but the object, e.g. нaли´ть молоко´, to pour the (i.e. some specific) milk, perhaps the milk left in the bottle, the milk on the table.

A genitive form with partitive meaning is often found after verbs bearing the prefix нa- in its meaning of a certain quantity of (see 8.3, нa- (b)), e.g. нaкупи´ть

книг, to buy up a number of books.

(d)

To express lack or absence of sth or sb in constructions with нeт, there is/are not; нe´ было, there was/were not; and нe бу´дeт, there will not be.

These three Russian expressions, when they have the meanings given

above, are invariable.

Xлe´бa нeт.

There is no bread.

Eго´ здeсь нeт сeго´дня.

He is not here today.

Cнe´гa нe´ было.

There was no snow.

дождя´ нe бу´дeт.

There will not be any rain.

Note:

in the past or future tense absence may also be expressed by using a nominative form of the noun or personal pronoun: Oнa´ нe былa´ до´мa, She wasn’t at home; Oни´ тaм нe бу´дут, They won’t be there.

(e)

To express sufficiency or insufficiency after the impersonal verbs

хвaтa´ть/хвaти´ть, to suffice (+ y + gen of person who has enough/not 380

11.1

Use of the cases

enough of sth) and нeдостaвa´ть/нeдостa´ть, to be insufficient/not to have enough (+ dat of person who is short of sth):

У нaс врe´мeни нe хвaтaéт.

We don’t have enough time.

Eму´ нeдостaёт о´пытa.

He doesn’t have enough experience.

Note:

the genitive has a similar meaning of sufficiency after certain reflexive verbs bearing the prefix нa- which mean to do sth to satiety or to excess (see 8.3,

нa- (c)), e.g. Oнa´ нae´лaсь икры´, She ate a great deal of caviare; Oни´ нaпи´ли´сь

воды´, They drank a lot of water (as much as they wanted).

(f )

After short comparative adjectives, e.g.

бо´льшe го´дa

more than a year

ни´жe нуля´

below zero

(g)

After cardinal numerals (provided that the numeral itself is in the

nominative or accusative case), except one and compound numbers in which one is the last component (see 11.4.2).

(h)

The genitive case of an ordinal numeral is used without a preposition to express on a certain date, e.g.

трe´тьeго a´вгустa

оn 3 August

двa´дцaть шeсто´го октября´

оn 26 October

11.1.5

Verbs governing the genitive

(a)

Many verbs which express fear, avoidance or apprehension, e.g.

боя´ться (no pf as a rule)

to fear, be afraid of

избeгa´ть/избeжa´ть

to avoid

опaсa´ться (no pf )

to fear, shun, avoid

пугa´ться/испугa´ться

to be afraid of

стeсня´ться/постeсня´ться

to be shy of

стыди´ться/постыди´ться

to be ashamed of

Note:

in R1 these verbs may now be found with the accusative of animate nouns (i.e. of those animate nouns that have a distinct accusative form), e.g. Oн

бои´тся тётю, He’s afraid of his aunt.

(b)

Miscellaneous other verbs, e.g.

aлкa´ть (impf only; R3)

to hunger for, crave

дeржa´ться (no pf in this sense)

to keep to, hold on to

добивa´тьсяa (impf )

to strive for

доби´тьсяa (pf )

to get, procure

достигa´ть/дости´гнуть

to attain, achieve

зaслу´живaть (impf )

to deserve

кaсa´ться/косну´ться

to touch, concern

лишa´ть/лиши´ть

to deprive (sb of sth)

лишa´ться/лиши´ться

to lose, be deprived of

слу´шaться/послу´шaтьсяb

to obey

сто´итьc (no pf )

to be worth

381

Syntax

a The different aspects of this verb have different meanings when the verb refers to a single instance.

b In R1 this verb may now govern the accusative of an animate object, e.g.

Peбёнок слу´шaeтся Be´ру, The child obeys Vera.

c But this verb governs the accusative when it means to cost (see 11.1.2).

(c)

A number of verbs may govern either the genitive or the accusative,

e.g.

дожидa´ться/дождa´ться

to wait until

ждaть/подождa´ть

to wait for, expect

искa´ть (various pf )

to look for, seek

ожидa´ть (no pf )

to expect

проси´ть/попроси´ть

to ask for

трe´бовaть/потрe´бовaть

to require, need

хотe´ть/зaхотe´ть

to want

The reasons for choosing one case in preference to the other after

these verbs are not very clear-cut, and educated Russians may be

unable to explain them or even to agree on which case should be used in certain contexts. One may say that the genitive tends to be used if the object of the verb is general and abstract, whilst the accusative tends to prevail if the object is particular and concrete, i.e. is a specific thing or person. Thus:

r genitive object

Oн ждaл отвe´тa.

He was waiting for an answer.

Прошу´ прощe´ния.

I beg (your) pardon.

Tрe´буют aрe´стa прeзидe´нтa.

They are demanding the arrest of

the president.

r accusative object

Oн ждёт дя´дю.

He is waiting for his uncle.

Oн и´щeт тётю.

He is looking for his aunt.

Про´сим ви´зу нa въeзд в

We are asking for a Russian entry visa.

Pосси´ю.

Note:

the genitive is understood in set phrases expressing wishes (see 7.9), e.g. Bсeго´

до´брого! All the best!

11.1.6

Case of direct object after a negated verb

The genitive may be used instead of the accusative to express the direct object of a negated verb. The foreign student needs to know when one case or the other is obligatory or strongly preferred, but should also be aware that there are many instances where the question is finely

balanced and either case might be acceptable to a native-speaker.

Note:

there is no question of a genitive object being used if the negated verb is one which, when it is used affirmatively, governs the dative or instrumental case.

Thus in the statement I am not interested in music the noun music would be rendered by an instrumental form (я нe интeрeсу´юсь му´зыкой) just as it would 382

11.1

Use of the cases

if the verb интeрeсовa´тъся were not negated. Only verbs which, when affirmative, govern the accusative case may govern a direct object in the genitive when they are negated.

(a)

The genitive is preferred in the following circumstances:

r when the negation is intensive, i.e. if the negated verb is strengthened by some form of никaко´й, or ни одного´/одно´й, or ни . . . ни, e.g.

Hикaки´х рeшe´ний приня´ть нe

They could not take any decisions

смогли´.

at all.

r when the absence of sth or any part of sth is indicated. (The English translation in such contexts may well contain the word any.) A genitive object is therefore naturally to be expected after the verb имe´ть when it is negated.

Mото´рных ло´док здeсь eщё нe

They have not yet acquired motor

приобрeли´.

boats here.

Mы нe имeéм достa´точного

We don’t have a sufficient supply of

зaпa´сa то´пливa.

fuel.

r when the negated verb and its object combine to form a common

expression, a set phraseological combination, e.g.

´то нe игрaéт ро´ли.

This plays no role.

Я нe обрaщa´ю внимa´ния нa э´то.

I рaу nо attention to this.

Mы нe пожaлeéм сил.

We shall spare no efforts.

Oни´ нe сложи´ли ору´жия.

They did not lay down (their) arms.

Oнa´ нe нeсёт отвe´тствeнности

She does not bear responsibility

зa э´то.

for this.

r when the negated verb is a verb of perception, especially ви´дeть, to see, or слы´шaть, to hear, e.g.

Oн нe ви´дeл трaмвa´я, кото´рый

He did not see the tram which was

мe´длeнно шёл по у´лицe.

moving slowly down the street.

Я нe слы´шaл(a) звонкa´.

I didn’t hear the bell.

r when the form of the verb which is negated is a gerund or active

participle, e.g.

нe читa´я гaзe´ты

not reading the paper

нe нaписa´в письмa´

without having written the letter

проблe´мa, нe нaшe´дшaя

a problem which did not find reflection

отрaжe´ния в кни´гe

in the book

r when the object of the negated verb is э´то, this/that/it, e.g.

Я э´того нe зaбу´ду.

I shan’t forget this.

Mно´гиe нe хотe´ли бы э´того.

Manу people would not want this.

Note:

it may happen that more than one of the above considerations applies and that it is therefore difficult to define the overriding criterion for using the genitive in a given context.

383

Syntax

(b)

On the other hand the accusative is preferred in the following

circumstances:

r when there is a double negative or when the negative occurs in a

combination such as чуть нe, almost, or eдвa´ нe, barely, i.e. when the basic idea is not negative but affirmative, e.g.

Oн нe мог нe зaмe´тить пятно´.

He could not help noticing the stain.

Oнa´ чуть нe рaзби´лa вa´зу.

She almost broke the vase.

Кaк тут нe вспо´мнить э´то?

How can one not recall this?

r when the object of the negated verb is qualified by an instrumental predicate, e.g.

Я нe нaхожу´ фрaнцу´зский язы´к

I do not find French difficult.

тру´дным.

Oн нe считaéт э´тот отвe´т

He does not consider this answer

удовлeтвори´тeльным.

satisfactory.

r when it is not the verb but some part of speech other than the verb that is being negated, e.g.

He он э´то сдe´лaл.

It was not he who did this.

Oнa´ купи´лa нe гaзe´ту, a

It was a magazine, not a newspaper,

журнa´л.

that she bought.

Oни´ нe то´лько сообщи´ли мa´ссу

They not only communicated a mass

свe´дeний . . .

of information . . .

r when the object of the negated verb is a place or specific concrete object, e.g.

´ти дe´ньги Hью-йо´рк нe спaсу´т. This money will not save New York.

Paдиослу´шaтeли нe выключa´ли

Radio listeners did not turn off their

рa´диоприёмники в тeчe´ниe двух

sets for a fortnight.

нeдe´ль.

r when the object is a feminine noun referring to a person (or a

masculine noun of the type Ca´шa), e.g.

Я нe знa´ю ири´ну в лицо´.

I don’t know Irina by sight.

(c)

The accusative is more common than the genitive (but is not

obligatory) when the negated verb is an auxiliary verb while the verb which governs the direct object is an infinitive, e.g.

Oн нe мог поня´ть плaн.

He could not understand the plan.

He стa´ну приводи´ть

I shall not put forward any concrete

конкрe´тныe aргумe´нты.

arguments.

11.1.7

Basic uses of the dative

(a)

To express the indirect object of a verb, i.e. the person or thing to which sth is given or done, or which is indirectly affected by an

action, e.g.

384

11.1

Use of the cases

Почтaльо´н дaёт eму´ письмо´.

The postman is giving him a

letter.

Oн зaплaти´л официa´нту.

He paid the waiter.

Портно´й сшил мнe костю´м.

The tailor made me a suit.

Я пожa´л(a) eму´ ру´ку.

I shook his hand.

Note:

the dative form of the reflexive pronoun сeбe´ is commonly used in phrases describing injury to oneself or action on part of oneself, e.g. ломa´ть/сломa´ть

сeбe´ ру´ку, to break one’s arm; потирa´ть/потeрe´ть сeбe´ лоб, to wipe one’s brow.

(b)

To indicate the subject in common impersonal expressions, such as:

мо´жно

it is possible to/one can

нa´до/ну´жно

it is necessary to/one must

нeльзя´

it is impossible to/one cannot/

one must not

жaль

to be sorry for, to be sorry to

порa´

to be time to

If past meaning is intended these expressions are followed by the

neuter form бы´ло, and if future meaning is intended they are followed by the third-person-singular form бу´дeт, e.g.

Eму´ нa´до бы´ло вы´йти.

He had to go out.

Haм ну´жно сдe´лaть

We must make the right choice.

прa´вильный вы´бор.

Mнe жaль э´тих людe´й.

I am sorry for these people.

Note:

these impersonal expressions are also often used without any subject, e.g.

здeсь мо´жно кури´ть, One can smoke here; Heльзя´ входи´ть в пaльто´, One mustn’t go in with one’s coat on.

(с)

In impersonal expressions with the neuter short form of many

adjectives, e.g.

Mнe пло´хо.

I don’t feel well.

Teбe´ хо´лодно?

Are you cold?

Baм нe ду´шно?

It’s not too stuffy for you?

Baм бу´дeт жa´рко.

You’ll be (too) hot.

(d)

In impersonal expressions with many verbs, e.g.

кaзa´ться/покaзa´ться

to seem to

нaдоeдa´ть/нaдоe´сть

to make tired, sicken, bore (used in

translation of to be fed up with)

нeдостaвa´ть/нeдостa´ть

to be insufficient

нрa´виться/понрa´виться

to be pleasing to (used in translation

of to like)

приходи´ться/прийти´сь

to have to

слe´довaть (no pf in this sense)

ought, should

удaвa´ться/удa´ться

to succeed

385

Syntax

Examples:

мнe кa´жeтся, что . . .

I think (lit it seems to me) that . . .

Haм понрa´вилaсь э´тa пьe´сa.

We liked this play.

Baм слe´довaло бы скaзa´ть мнe

You ought to have told me that

э´то вчeрa´.

yesterday.

(e)

With negative pronouns which mean to have nothing to or there is nothing to, etc. (see 11.2.4).

(f )

To express a subject’s age. The invariable forms бы´ло and бу´дeт are used to convey past and future meaning, respectively.

Aндрe´ю пятнa´дцaть лeт.

Andrei is 15.

Ca´шe бы´ло пять лeт.

Sasha was 5.

B a´вгустe мнe бу´дeт три´дцaть

I’ll be 30 in August.

лeт.

11.1.8

Verbs governing the dative

(a)

Many verbs which indicate either advantage, assistance, permission or disadvantage, hindrance, prohibition to the object of the verb, e.g.

врeди´ть/поврeди´тьa

to injure, harm, hurt

грози´ть (impf )

to threaten

зaпрeщa´ть/зaпрeти´тьb

to forbid, prohibit

измeня´ть/измeни´тьc

to betray

мeшa´ть/помeшa´ть

to prevent, hinder, bother, disturb

позволя´ть/позво´лить

to allow, permit

помогa´ть/помо´чь

to help

прeпя´тствовaть/

to obstruct

воспрeпя´тствовaть

противорe´чить (impf only)

to contradict

рaзрeшa´ть/рaзрeши´тьb

to allow, permit

служи´ть/послужи´ть

to serve

совe´товaть/посовe´товaть

to advise

сопротивля´ться (impf only)

to resist

спосо´бствовaть/поспосо´бствовaть

to assist, promote, contribute to

a The pair поврeждa´ть/поврeди´ть, which also means to damage, to injure, or to hurt, takes the accusative case, e.g. Oн поврeди´л сeбe´ но´гу, He hurt his leg.

b When it is a thing that is prohibited or allowed зaпрeщa´ть/зaпрeти´ть and рaзрeшa´ть/рaзрeши´ть govern a direct object in the accusative, e.g.

Прaви´тeльство зaпрeти´ло/рaзрeши´ло но´вую гaзe´ту, The government prohibited/permitted the new newspaper.

c When измeня´ть/измeни´ть means to change or to alter it governs the accusative case, e.g. дирe´ктор шко´лы рeши´л измeни´ть учe´бную

прогрa´мму, The headmaster decided to change the curriculum.

(b)

Some verbs indicating attitude towards an object, e.g.

вe´рить/повe´ритьa

to believe, give credence to

зaви´довaть/позaви´довaтьb

to envy

386

11.1

Use of the cases

изумля´ться/изуми´ться

to be astonished at

рa´довaться/обрa´довaться

to rejoice at, be gladdened by

сочу´вствовaть (impf )

to sympathise with

удивля´ться/удиви´ться

to be surprised at

a Be´рить/повe´рить takes в + acc if it means to believe in sth, e.g. Oн вe´рит в

бо´гa, He believes in God. Contrast the use of the two cases with this verb in the sentence Oнa´ нe знaéт, во что´ и кому´ вe´рить, She doesn’t know what to believe in and whom to believe.

b зaви´довaть/позaви´довaть cannot govern a direct object as can the English verb to envy in phrases such as I envy you your health.

(c)

Miscellaneous other verbs, e.g.

вeлe´ть (impf and pf )

to order, command

звони´ть/позвони´ть

to ring, telephone

льстить/польсти´тьa

to flatter

повиновa´ться (impf, and in past

to obey

tense also pf )

подрaжa´ть (impf only)

to imitate

прикa´зывaть/прикaзa´ть

to order

принaдлeжa´тьb (impf only)

to belong to

слe´довaть/послe´довaтьc

to follow

соотвe´тствовaть (impf only)

to correspond to

учи´ть/нaучи´тьd

to teach

учи´ться/нaучи´тьсяd

to learn (a subject)

a Although льсти´ть/польсти´ть normally governs the dative case, the accusative form of the reflexive pronoun is used in the expression

льсти´ть/польсти´ть сeбя´ нaдe´ждой, to flatter oneself with the hope.

b When принaдлeжa´ть denotes ownership it is followed by the dative case without any preposition, e.g. Э

´тa кни´гa принaдлeжи´т моeму´ брa´ту, This

book belongs to my brother. When on the other hand it denotes membership it must be followed by к and the dative, e.g. Oн принaдлeжи´т к

лeйбори´стской пa´ртии, He belongs to the Labour Party.

c Cлe´довaть/послe´довaть is followed by the dative case only when it means to follow in the sense of to emulate. When it means to go after it takes зa + instr (see 10.3.4).

d After учи´ть/нaучи´ть, to teach and учи´ться/нaучи´ться, to learn, it is the subject taught or the thing learnt that is denoted by a noun in the dative case, e.g. Oн у´чит сeстру´ фрaнцу´зскому языку´, He is teaching his sister French; Oнa´ у´чится фрaнцу´зскому языку´, She is learning French. However, after the verb изучa´ть/изучи´ть, which means to study, the thing learnt is denoted by a noun in the accusative case, e.g. Oн изучaéт мaтeмa´тику, He is studying mathematics.

(d)

The adjective рaд, рa´дa, рa´ды, glad, which may only be used predicatively and which exists only in a short form, is also followed by a noun or pronoun in the dative, e.g. Oнa´ былa´ рa´дa моeму´ счa´стью, She was glad at my good fortune.

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Syntax

11.1.9

Basic uses of the instrumental

(a)

To indicate the agent by whom or the instrument with which or by

means of which an action is carried out, e.g.

Oн был уби´т солдa´том.

He was killed by a soldier.

Oнaéст ви´лкой.

She is eating with a fork.

(b)

To denote the thing with which sth is supplied or endowed, e.g.

Госудa´рство обeспe´чивaeт

The state provides all citizens with

всeх грa´ждaн обрaзовa´ниeм.

an education.

Áтомнaя элeктростa´нция

The atomic power station supplies the

снaбжaéт го´род

town with electricity.

элeктри´чeством.

(c)

In many adverbial phrases of manner, including indication of means of transport, e.g.

aвтомоби´лeм

by car

сaмолётом

by plane

шёпотом

in a whisper

идти´ бы´стрыми шaгa´ми

to walk with quick steps

(d)

In certain expressions of time which define the point at which sth

happens; cf. use of the accusative to indicate duration (see

11.1.2(b)), e.g.

вe´чeром

in the evening

о´сeнью

in autumn

(e)

In the literary variety of R3, to define route taken and to indicate likeness, e.g.

e´хaть бe´рeгом (i.e. по бe´рeгу)

to travel along the bank

зe´ркaлом (i.e. кaк зe´ркaло)

like a mirror

(f )

In certain impersonal constructions indicating the agency of some

force of nature, e.g.

доро´гу зaнeсло´ снe´гом.

The road was covered in snow.

лугa´ зa´лило водо´й.

The meadows were flooded with water.

Кры´шу сду´ло вe´тром.

The roof was blown off by the wind.

11.1.10

Verbs governing the instrumental

(a)

Many verbs indicating control, command, government, direction or

use. Some of these verbs are by their nature not capable of having

perfective forms.

влaдe´ть

to command, master, own

дирижи´ровaть

to conduct (orchestra)

зaвe´довaть

to be in charge of, manage, run

комa´ндовaть

to command (armed forces)

388

11.1

Use of the cases

облaдa´ть

to possess

по´льзовaться/воспо´льзовaться

to use, make use of, enjoy (in sense

dispose of )

Note:

the verb испо´льзовaть (no pf ), to utilise, on the other hand, governs the accusative case.

прa´вить

to govern, rule, drive (vehicle)

рaсполaгa´ть

to have at one’s disposal

рaспоряжa´ться/рaспоряди´ться

to manage, deal with

руководи´ть

to manage, direct

упрaвля´ть

to govern, rule, drive (vehicle)

(b)

A number of verbs indicating attitude towards sth. Some of these too exist only in an imperfective form.

восхищa´ться/восхити´ться

to admire (i.e. to be very impressed

by)

горди´ться (no pf )

to be proud of

дорожи´ть (no pf )

to value, prize

интeрeсовa´ться/

to be interested in

зaинтeрeсовa´ться

любовa´ться/полюбовa´ться

to admire (i.e. to enjoy looking at;

see 3.7)

нaслaждa´ться/нaслaди´ться

to enjoy

прeнeбрeгa´ть/прeнeбрe´чь

to ignore, neglect

увлeкa´ться/увлe´чься

to be fond of, be carried away by,

be obsessed with (see 3.7)

хвa´стaться/похвa´стaться

to boast of

(c)

A number of verbs which indicate movement of sth, especially of part of the subject’s body, or making a sound with sth, e.g.

бряцa´ть (no pf ) цe´пью

to rattle, clank a chain

виля´ть/вильну´ть хвосто´м

to wag (its) tail

дви´гaть/дви´нуть ного´й

to move (one’s) foot

звeнe´ть (no pf ) дeньгa´ми

to jingle money

кaчa´ть/покaчa´ть голово´й

to shake (one’s) head

кивa´ть/кивну´ть голово´й

to nod (one’s) head

мaхa´ть/мaхну´ть руко´й

to wave (one’s) hand

мигa´ть/мигну´ть or

to wink, blink (one’s) eye

моргa´ть/моргну´ть глa´зом

пожимa´ть/пожa´ть плeчa´ми

to shrug (one’s) shoulders

рaзмa´хивaть (no pf ) мeчо´м

to brandish a sword

то´пaть/то´пнуть ного´й

to stamp (one’s) foot

хло´пaть/хло´пнуть двe´рью

to slam a door

шa´ркaть/шa´ркнуть ного´й

to shuffle (one’s) foot

Note:

when the part of the body belongs to someone other than the subject then the accusative is used, e.g. пожимa´ть/пожa´ть кому´-н ру´ку, to shake sb’s [i.e. sb else’s] hand.

389

Syntax

(d)

Miscellaneous other verbs, e.g.

дышa´ть (no pf )

to breathe

жe´ртвовaть/пожe´ртвовaть

to sacrifice

зaнимa´ться/зaня´ться

to be engaged in, be occupied with,

study

злоупотрeбля´ть/злоупотрeби´ть

to abuse

пa´хнуть (impf only)

to smell of (used impersonally)

рисковa´ть (no pf )

to risk, hazard

стрaдa´ть (no pf )

to suffer from

Note:

used with the instrumental case стрaдa´ть implies chronic or permanent predicament, e.g. стрaдa´ть диaбe´том, to suffer from diabetes; стрaдa´ть от

implies more temporary suffering, e.g. стрaдa´ть от зубно´й бо´ли, to suffer from toothache.

(e)

The instrumental is also used in nouns which function as the

complement of быть, to be. Modern usage is as follows.

r The instrumental is used when the verb occurs in the infinitive (быть), future (бу´ду, etc.), conditional (был/былa´/бы´ло/бы´ли бы), imperative (будь оr бу´дьтe) or as a gerund (бу´дучи), e.g.

Oн хо´чeт быть инжeнe´ром.

He wants to be an engineer.

Oн бу´дeт дипломa´том.

He will be a diplomat.

Бу´дьтe врaчо´м.

Be a doctor.

Бу´дучи дурaко´м, он нe по´нял.

Being a fool, he didn’t understand.

r The instrumental is also normally used nowadays with the past tense (был, etc.), e.g.

B мо´лодости он был

In his youth he was an outstanding

выдaю´щимся спортсмe´ном.

sportsman.

Tолсто´й был вeли´ким

Tolstoi was a great writer.

писa´тeлeм.

Note:

grammarians make a distinction between temporary state (in which case the instrumental is obligatory) and permanent state (as in the second example above, in which case the nominative may be used, giving вeли´кий писa´тeль).

However, the choice is not one the student needs to agonise over, and one is now on safe ground if one always uses an instrumental complement with быть. (On identification of subject and complement see 4.2, явля´ться, note 2.)

r When on the other hand the verb to be is in the present tense, and is therefore understood but not actually stated in the Russian, a

nominative complement must be used, e.g.

Oнa´ профe´ссор.

She is a professor.

Mой брaт – инжeнe´р.

Mу brother is an engineer.

Departures from this rule are rare, unless the complement is винa´, fault, blame, or причи´нa, cause, e.g. Tут, конe´чно, нe одно´

тeлeви´дeниe вино´й, Here, of course, television alone is not to blame.

390

11.2

Use of pronouns

Note:

the noun which in English functions as the complement is not in the

instrumental in the following type of Russian construction:

´то был ивa´н.

It was Ivan.

´то былa´ Taтья´нa.

It was Tat iana.

´то бы´ло фрaнцу´зскоe сло´во.

It was a French word.

´то бы´ли дeрe´вья.

They were trees.

(f )

A number of other verbs, apart from быть, require an instrumental complement, at least in some contexts, e.g.

вы´глядeть (impf )

to look (like)

дe´лaться/сдe´лaться

to become

кaзa´ться/покaзa´ться

to seem

нaзывa´ть/нaзвa´ть

to call, name

окa´зывaться/окaзa´ться

to turn out to be, prove to be

остaвa´ться/остa´ться

to remain

притворя´ться/притвори´ться

to pretend to be

рaбо´тaть (no pf )

to work as

служи´ть/послужи´ть

to serve as

слыть/прослы´ть

to be reputed to be

стaнови´ться/стaть

to become

считa´ться (no pf )

to be considered

явля´ться/яви´ться

to be

(g)

Some verbs take a direct object in the accusative and a complement in the instrumental, e.g. Я нaхожу´ э´ту о´пeру ску´чной, I find this opera boring (R2/3). Similarly:

выбирa´ть/вы´брaть

to elect

нaзнaчa´ть/нaзнa´чить

to appoint

считa´ть/счeсть

to consider

11.1.11

Use of the prepositional

This case, as its name suggests, is used only after certain prepositions (on which see 10.1.6) and can only be governed by verbs through those prepositions (see 10.3.5).

11.2

Use of pronouns

11.2.1

Use of кото´рый as a relative pronoun

The relative pronoun кото´рый ( who, which) gives some difficulty, for although it declines like an adjective and must agree in gender and

number with the noun or pronoun to which it refers, its case is

determined by its function within the subordinate clause in which it stands. Thus in all the following examples the relative pronoun is

feminine and singular, like мaши´нa, car, but its case varies in accordance with its grammatical role as, respectively, subject, direct object and word governed by в:

391

Syntax

Maши´нa, кото´рaя стои´т пe´рeд вокзa´лом, сломa´лaсь.

The car which is outside the station has broken down.

Maши´нa, кото´рую я купи´л(a) вчeрa´, сломa´лaсь.

The car which I bought yesterday has broken down.

Maши´нa, в кото´рой e´хaл прeзидe´нт, сломa´лaсь.

The car in which the president was travelling has broken down.

Note:

кто, who, and что, what, which, may also function as relative pronouns, although they are more commonly used as interrogative pronouns. As relative pronouns they occur mainly in conjunction with some form of тот or всe/всё, e.g. Te, кто читa´л ромa´н ‘Прeступлe´ниe и нaкaзa´ниe’, по´мнят

о´брaз Cвидригa´йловa, Those who have read ‘Crime and Punishment’ remember the character of Svidrigailov; Я нe соглa´сeн/соглa´снa с тeм, что он говори´т, I do not agree with what he says.

11.2.2

Use of кaко´й and кото´рый as interrogative pronouns

These pronouns, which may be used in questions asking what? or which?, used to be more clearly distinguished than they are now. A question introduced by кaко´й anticipated an answer describing quality, e.g. Кaкa´я сeго´дня пого´дa? What is the weather like today?, whereas one introduced by кото´рый anticipated an answer selecting an item out of a number of things or indicating the position of sth in a numerical

series, e.g. Кото´рую из э´тих книг вы прeдпочитaéтe?, Which of these books do you prefer?

Nowadays almost all questions requiring the use of one of these

pronouns may be put by using кaко´й, e.g.

Кaкиé ви´нa вы лю´битe?

What wines do you like?

Кaки´х ру´сских a´второв

Which Russian authors have

читa´ли?

you read?

– Кaко´й у вaс но´мeр?

‘Which room are you in?’

– двa´дцaть шeсто´й.

‘Twenty-six.’

Кото´рый, as an interrogative pronoun, can only really be considered obligatory in expressions of time such as Кото´рый чaс? What time is it?

and B кото´ром чaсу´? At what time?

11.2.3

Use of negative pronouns (никто´, etc.)

It must be remembered that the negative particle нe must precede any verb with which the negative pronouns (никто´, ничто´, никогдa´,

нигдe

´ , никудa´, никaко´й, никa´к) are combined, e.g.

Hикто

´ нe ви´дeл eго´.

Nobody saw him.

Oнa

´ ничeго´ нe ви´дeлa.

She didn’t see anything.

Oн ни с кe

´ м нe говори´л.

He didn’t speak to anyone.

Я ни о чём нe ду

´ мaю.

I’m not thinking about anything.

392

11.2

Use of pronouns

Mы никогдa

´ нe говори´м об

We never talk about that.

´ том.

Я никудa

´ нe ходи´л(a).

I didn’t go anywhere.

Note:

никто

´ and ничто

´ decline (see 9.2) and, if governed by a preposition, split into two components with the preposition between them. (See also 11.2.4.)

11.2.4

Use of нe´кого, etc.

The pronouns dealt with in 11.2.3 should not be confused with similar forms which are used in contexts where English has the expressions to have no one/nothing/no time/nowhere to or there is no one/nothing/no time/nowhere to, viz:

нe

´ чeго

to have nothing to

нe

´ кого

to have no one to

нe

´ когдa

to have no time to

нe

´ гдe

to have nowhere to (position

indicated)

нe

´ кудa

to have nowhere to (movement

indicated)

Being impersonal, these expressions are invariably used with the neuter form бы´ло, if they are in the past tense, and the third-person-singular form бу´дeт, if they are in the future. Examples:

Haм нe

´ чeго дe´лaть.

We have nothing to do/There is

nothing for us to do.

Eму

´ нe´кого бы´ло люби´ть.

He had no one to love.

Eй нe

´ когдa бу´дeт ви´дeть вaс.

She will have no time to see you.

Яблоку нe

´ гдe упa´сть.

There isn’t room to swing a cat. (lit

There is nowhere for an apple to fall.)

Note:

нe

´ чeго and нe

´ кого, which are accusative/genitive forms, also have dative, instrumental and prepositional forms. When these words are governed by a preposition they are generally split to enable the preposition to be inserted between the particle нe and the appropriate form of кто оr что, e.g.

Mнe нe

´ нa кого´ полaгa´ться.

I have no one to rely on.

Eй нe

´ кому дaть ли´шний

She has got no one to give the spare

билe

´ т.

ticket to.

Mнe нe

´ чeм eсть суп.

I’ve got nothing to drink my soup with.

Eму нe

´ с кeм говори´ть об

He’s got nobody to talk to about this.

´ том.

им нe´ о чeм бы´ло говори´ть.

They had nothing to talk about.

11.2.5

Use of the particles -то, -нибу´дь, -ли´бо

Use of these particles, any of which may be added to кто, что, когдa´, гдe, кудa

´ , кaко´й, кaк, отку´дa, почeму´, to render someone, something, some time, somewhere, (to) somewhere, some, somehow, from somewhere, for 393

Syntax

some reason, respectively, gives the English-speaking student some difficulty. The fundamental distinction between them is that -нибу´дь

implies that there is an element of choice from several alternatives, whereas -то implies that something is unknown to the speaker. The less common -ли´бо is a more bookish alternative to -нибу´дь and now sounds somewhat dated.

r -то will translate into English as some and indicates that while the speaker is sure that some event has taken place he or she does not have precise information about it, e.g. Oн скaзa´л что´-то, но я нe

рaсслы

´ шaл(a), He said something but I didn’t catch it [i.e. sth definitely was said, but the speaker does not know exactly what it was]; Кто´-то

тeбe

´ звони´л, Somebody phoned you [but the speaker does not know who].

r -нибу´дь may be translated, depending on the context, as either some or any. It occurs with the imperative, e.g. Поговори´тe с

кe

´ м-нибудь об э´том, Have a talk with somebody about it. It also tends to occur:

(a)

more with the future, about which there is less certainty than the

present and in which therefore any one of a number of things might

happen, e.g. Éсли кто´-нибудь позвони´т, скaжи´тe им, что я

зaболe

´ л(a), If anyone rings, tell them I’m ill;

(b)

in the past tense when there is a choice or range of possibilities.

Compare e.g.

Кa

´ ждоe у´тро он

Every morning he went somewhere [the

уходи

´ л кудa´-то.

speaker does not know where].

Кa

´ ждоe у´тро он уходи´л

Every morning he went somewhere [possibly

кудa

´ -нибудь.

different places on different mornings].

(c)

in combination with expressions such as вeроя´тно, probably, нaвe´рно, probably, I expect, which indicate uncertainty, e.g. Haвe´рно он ку´пит

что

´ -нибудь, I expect he’ll buy something [but what exactly is not yet known].

r -ли´бо, like -нибу´дь, may indicate choice or a range of possibilities, e.g.

Haйди

´ тe кого´-либо, кто мог бы вaм помо´чь с э´тим, Find somebody who could help you with this.

11.2.6

Use of свой

Use of this word gives much difficulty to the English-speaker, because English has only one possessive pronoun for each person. Cвой

declines like мой and agrees in gender, case and number with the noun it qualifies. It denotes possession by the person or thing which is the subject of the clause in which the possessive pronoun occurs

irrespective of whether that subject is first, second or third person and 394

11.3

Use of short adjectives

singular or plural. It might therefore translate any of the English

possessive pronouns in the following variations:

I/you/he/she/we/they have/has lost my/your/his/her/our/their money.

Я/ты/он/онa´/мы/вы/они´ потeря´л(a/и) свои´ дe´ньги.

If any of the third-person possessives ( his/her/its/their) are rendered by eго

´ /eё/их then those Russian pronouns indicate possession by

somebody other than the subject of the clause. Compare e.g.

Oн потeря

´ л свои´ дe´ньги.

He has lost his (own) money.

Oн потeря

´ л eго´ дe´ньги.

He has lost his (sb else’s) money.

r It is not possible to use свой:

(a)

to qualify the subject itself. In the statement His money has been lost, for example, in which money is the subject, his must be translated by eго´; (b)

when the possessive pronoun indicates possession by a subject which

stands in another clause. In the sentence He knows that I have lost his money, for example, his indicates possession by the person who is the subject of the sentence as a whole ( he), but it is I that is the subject of the clause in which his occurs. The sentence must therefore be translated: Oн знae´т, что я потeря´л(a) eго´ дe´ньги.

r However, in certain circumstances the point made in (a) above is

overruled, viz:

(a)

in set expressions in which свой does qualify the subject, e.g. Cвоя´

рубa

´ шкa бли´жe к тe´лу, lit One’s own shirt is closer to the body, i.e.

Charity begins at home;

(b)

in impersonal constructions in which the subject appears in the dative or is understood, e.g. Ha´до служи´ть своe´й ро´динe, One must serve one’s country;

(c)

in constructions with y + gen which equate to the English verb to have, e.g. У кa´ждого студe´нтa свой компью´тeр, Each student has his own computer.

11.3

Use of short adjectives

The short forms of the adjective may only be used when the adjective is predicative, that is to say when in the English translation of the Russian some form of the verb to be stands between the subject and the adjective, as in the sentences Э´тот студe´нт умён, This student is clever, дe´вушкa былa´ грустнa´, The girl was sad.

If the adjective is not separated from the noun in this way, then only a long form of the adjective may be used, irrespective of the word

order employed, e.g. Oн у´мный студe´нт/Oн студe´нт у´мный/У´мный

он студe´нт, He is an intelligent student; Oнa´ былa´ гру´стной дe´вушкой, She was a sad girl.

395

Syntax

Even when the adjective is predicative the short form is not

invariably used. Often the long form is preferred or possible, and when some form of быть is used an instrumental form of the adjective is also possible. The following guidance can be given, although this is an area of grammar in which usage is relatively fluid.

r Many common adjectives are found only in the short form when used

predicatively, e.g.

виновa´т, виновa´тa, виновa´то, виновa´ты

guilty

гото´в, гото´вa, гото´во, гото´вы

ready

дaлёк, дaлeкa´, дaлeко´, дaлeки´

far, distant

дово´лeн, дово´льнa, дово´льно, дово´льны

satisfied with

до´лжeн, должнa´, должно´, должны´

bound to (i.e. must)

досто´ин, досто´йнa, досто´йно, досто´йны

worthy of

нaмe´рeн, нaмe´рeнa, нaмe´рeно, нaмe´рeны

intending to

ну´жeн, нужнa´, ну´жно, нужны´

necessary

похо´ж, похо´жa, похо´жe, похо´жи

like, similar

прaв, прaвa´, прa´во, прa´вы

right

свобо´дeн, свобо´днa, свобо´дно, свобо´дны

free

скло´нeн, скло´ннa, скло´нно, скло´нны

inclined to

соглa´сeн, соглa´снa, соглa´сно, соглa´сны

agreeable to

спосо´бeн, спосо´бнa, спосо´бно, спосо´бны

capable of

r Short forms are preferred, provided that the adjective is predicative, in the following circumstances:

(a)

when the adjective is followed by some sort of complement (as many

of those in the above list almost invariably are), e.g. (with nature of complement defined in brackets):

Oн рaвноду´шeн к му´зыкe. (preposition + noun)

He is indifferent to music.

Caу´довскaя Aрa´вия богa´тa нe´фтью. (noun in oblique case)

Saudi Arabia is rich in oil.

(b)

when the subject of the statement is one of the words то, that; э´то, this, it; что, in the sense of which or what; всё, everything; другоé, another thing; одно´, one thing; пe´рвоe, the first thing, e.g.

Bсё бы´ло споко´йно.

Everything was peaceful.

Oдно´ я´сно.

One thing is clear.

(c)

when the subject is qualified by some word or phrase such as вся´кий, anу; кa´ждый, every; любо´й, anу; подо´бный, such; тaко´й, such, which serves to generalise it, e.g.

Кa´ждоe сло´во в ромa´нe умe´стно.

Every word in the novel is apt.

Подо´бныe зaдa´чи просты´.

Such tasks are simple.

396

11.3

Use of short adjectives

(d)

if the adjective is derived from a present active participle (ending in

-щий); a present passive participle (ending in -мый); оr a past passive participle (ending in -тый оr -нный), e.g.

Ba´шe повeдe´ниe нeприe´млeмо.

Your conduct is

unacceptable.

Oн жeнa´т.

He is married.

(e)

with some adjectives when they denote excessive possession of a

quality, especially:

большо´й: вeли´к, вeликa´, вeлико´, вeлики´

too big

мa´лeнький: мaл, мaлa´, мaло´, мaлы´

too small

дорого´й: до´рог, дорогa´, до´рого, до´роги

too dear

дeшёвый: дёшeв, дeшeвa´, дёшeво, дёшeвы

too cheap

широ´кий: широ´к, широкa´, широко´, широки´ too wide

у´зкий: у´зок, узкa´, у´зко, у´зки

too narrow

e.g. Э´ти ту´фли мнe мaлы´, These shoes are too small for me.

(f )

in general statements of a philosophical or scientific nature, e.g.

душa´ чeловe´кa бeссмe´ртнa.

Man’s soul is immortal.

Cудьбa´ Pосси´и зaгa´дочнa.

Russia’s fate is enigmatic.

r The long form of an adjective is preferred, when the adjective is used predicatively, in the following circumstances:

(a)

if it is intended to particularise, i.e. to draw attention to the fact that a particular subject possesses the quality denoted by the adjective or to pick out one object from among several or many, e.g.

Te´мзa коро´ткaя рeкa´, Bо´лгa – дли´ннaя.

The Thames is a short

river, the Volga is a long

one.

Note:

the inclusion in English of the definite article and the pronoun one serves to single out the object.

(b)

in statements incorporating a phrase with y + gen (in which the object in question is being particularised), e.g.

Глaзa´ у нeё крaси´выe.

She has beautiful eyes

[i.e. her eyes are beautiful

ones].

(c)

with some adjectives, to indicate that the quality is a permanent one, e.g.

Oнa´ – больнa´я.

She is an invalid.

Note:

cf. Oнa´ больнa´, She is ill.

397

Syntax

11.4

Use of numerals

This is a particularly complex area for the foreign student of Russian.

Much of the complexity arises from the fact that (a) usage of двa and other numerals bears traces of the existence of the old dual category (see Glossary); and (b) numerals themselves are capable of declension.

It is helpful to deal separately with the use of оди´н (11.4.1) and then to examine separately use of the other numerals when they are themselves in nominative or accusative form (11.4.2) and use of those numerals when they are themselves in an oblique case (11.4.3).

11.4.1

Use of oди´н

Oди´н, which declines like the demonstrative pronoun э´тот (9.2), is generally followed, when it means one, by a singular noun, even in higher numbers in which it is the last component, such as twenty-one. It agrees in gender and case with nouns and adjectives which follow it, e.g.

оди´н дом

one house

двa´дцaть однa´ кни´гa

twenty-оne books

в одно´й извe´стной стaтьe´

in one famous article

Note:

оди´н does have plural forms which are used with nouns which themselves exist only in a plural form (see 3.6.1; e.g. одни´ су´тки, оne twenty-four-hour period) or when the word means only (e.g. Я читa´ю одни´ ру´сскиe ромa´ны, I read only Russian novels).

11.4.2

Use of numerals higher than one

in nominative/accusative

When a numeral higher than one is itself in the nominative or accusative case (i.e. when it is the subject of a clause or the direct object of a transitive verb), usage is as follows:

r двa/двe, три, чeты´рe, о´бa/о´бe, полторa´/полторы´, and any number of which one of these numerals is the last component, govern a noun

in the genitive singular, e.g.

двa грузовикa´

two lorries

двe кни´ги

two books

три по´ля

three fields

чeты´рe мe´сяцa

four months

о´бa тeлeфо´нa

both telephones

полторa´ чaсa´

one and a half hours

Note:

двe, о´бe, полторы´ are feminine forms.

r adjectives after any of the above numerals are genitive plural, if the noun is masculine or neuter, or nominative/accusative plural if the

noun is feminine, e.g.

398

11.4

Use of numerals

двa дeрeвя´нных столa´

two wooden tables

три гря´зных окнa´

three dirty windows

чeты´рe чёрныe ко´шки

four black cats

Note:

the use of genitive plural adjectives after these numerals with feminine nouns (e.g. двe но´вых книги), as well as masculine and neuter nouns, is old-fashioned, but is widely encountered in classical literature.

r numerals from пять upwards (and also ты´сячa, which may be treated as either a noun or a numeral, and миллио´н and миллиa´рд, both of which are nouns) govern a noun in the genitive plural; any adjectives are also genitive plural irrespective of the gender of the noun, e.g.

пять больши´х городо´в

five large cities

двa´дцaть шeсть но´вых книг

twenty-six new books

шeстьдeся´т дe´вять золоты´х мeдa´лeй

sixty-nine gold medals

r the above rules relating to adjectives apply also to substantivised adjectives, e.g.

три портны´х

three tailors

чeты´рe моро´жeных

four ice-creams

двe столо´выe

two dining-rooms

11.4.3

Use of numerals in oblique cases

When the numeral itself is in an oblique case (e.g. if it is governed by a preposition or by a verb which governs the genitive, dative or

instrumental), then all nouns and adjectives which follow it are, in R2/3 at least, in the same case and in the plural, e.g.

в двух вeчe´рних гaзe´тaх

in two evening newspapers

по обe´им сторонa´м доро´ги

down both sides of the road

Oнa´ позвони´лa трём друзья´м.

She telephoned three friends.

зaконопроe´кт, при´нятый

a bill accepted by ninety-five

дeвяно´стa пятью´ голосa´ми

votes to four

про´тив чeтырёх

Note 1

All components of the numeral itself decline.

In R1 a speaker might put only key components of a compound number in the appropriate oblique case, e.g. c сeмьсо´т шeстьдeся´т дeвятью´ соддa´тaми, with 769 soldiers. Not that such an example is commonly encountered in ordinary speech: a speaker would most probably use an approximation or, if a precise number had to be given, use a construction in which the numerals did not have to be put in an oblique case.

11.4.4

Use of numerals with animate direct object

Numerals have distinct accusative and genitive forms and the question therefore arises as to which case should be used when they introduce an animate direct object (see 11.1.3). However, in practice it is only with двa/двe, три and чeты´рe that difficulty arises.

399

Syntax

r It is felt more correct to use the genitive rather than the accusative forms of двa/двe, три, чeты´рe when they are the direct object of a verb and are used with an animate noun denoting a person,

particularly when the noun is masculine, e.g.

цPУ рaскры´ло чeтырёх aгe´нтов.

The CIA discovered four agents.

Oн ви´дeл трёх дe´вушeк.

He saw three girls.

Note:

the use of a genitive form of the numeral entails the use of a plural form of the following noun.

r When the animate noun denotes an animal then a genitive form of the numeral is still considered more correct if the noun is masculine

(though this usage is perhaps less clear-cut than with nouns denoting people), whilst with nouns which are feminine the use of the genitive may seem stilted, e.g.

Oн ви´дeл двух слоно´в.

He saw two elephants.

Oн ви´дeл двe коро´вы.

He saw two cows.

r If the numerals двa/двe, три, чeты´рe occur as the last component of a compound number, then they are likely to be used in the accusative

form, esp in R1, e.g. Oн ви´дeл двa´дцaть двa мa´льчикa, He saw twenty-two boys.

r With the numerals пять and above only the accusative forms are used with animate direct objects, even in R3, e.g. Oн ви´дeл пять

мa´льчиков, He saw five boys.

11.4.5

Use of collective numerals

The collective numerals are двоé, троé, чe´твeро, пя´тeро, шe´стeро, сe´мeро. Higher numerals of this type (во´сьмeро, дe´вятeро, дe´сятeро) are no longer used; nor are пя´тeро, шe´стeро, сe´мeро anу longer commonly used in all the contexts in which двоé, троé, чe´твeро are possible.

If these numerals are used in the nominative or accusative then, like cardinal numerals from пять upwards, they are followed by nouns and adjectives in the genitive plural.

The collective numerals have the following uses:

(a)

to indicate the number of people in a group, especially when the

people are denoted by a pronoun or when the numeral stands on its

own as the subject, e.g.

Hac бы´ло двоé.

There were two of us.

Bошли´ троé.

Three people came in.

(b)

to indicate a number of male persons or the number in a family,

e.g.

чe´твeро рaбо´чих

four workers

У нaс двоé дeтe´й.

We’ve got two children.

400

11.4

Use of numerals

(c)

with nouns which exist only in the plural (see 3.6.1), e.g.

двоé но´вых джи´нсов

two new pairs of jeans

Note:

the collective numerals decline like plural adjectives (see 9.3.1). They may be used in all cases with animate nouns (e.g. мaть трои´х дeтe´й, the mother of three children), but with inanimate nouns only the nominative/accusative forms are used (e.g. троé су´ток, but о´коло трёх (not трои´х) су´ток, about three days).

11.4.6

Approximation

Approximation may be expressed in the following ways:

(a)

by reversal of the order of numeral and noun, e.g.

нeдe´ли двe

about two weeks

чaсa´ чe´рeз двa по´слe э´того

about two hours after that

(b)

by using о´коло with a numeral in the genitive, e.g.

о´коло стa киломe´тров от Mосквы´

about 100 kilometres from Moscow

(c)

by placing an appropriate adverb before the numeral, e.g.

приблизи´тeльно сто фу´нтов

approximately £ 100

примe´рно три´дцaть студe´нтов

roughly thirty students

Note: